The Circle of Knowledge: A Classified, Simplified, Visualized Book of Answers
Part 180
=Euphemism= is the form of expression by which bad or dangerous things are spoken of in gracious terms. As an example we say death is “parting” or “falling asleep.”
=Emphasis, or Inversion=, adds greatly to the precision as well as vigor of style when temperately used. That is, when the _predicate_ or _object_ are much more impressive or mentally prominent than the _subject_ they may with advantage precede it.
Any special emphasis may justify inversion. It is frequently used to indicate a swift or abrupt action--Commands frequently assume this form and owe to it half their force.
Examples:--
Great is Diana of the Ephesians, Sweet is the breath of morn. Low she lies who blessed our eyes. Silver and gold have I none. Go he shall. Stay not here. Up goes the fool, and gets sent down again.
FORMS OF WRITTEN ENGLISH
All forms of language composition are either Prose or Poetry; and these in turn are subdivided rhetorically into certain well-recognized special forms. The following classification shows at a glance the most important of these:
I. PROSE
LETTER WRITING.--Business and public letters, social letters, ceremonial letters and notes.
NARRATION.--Letters, journals, memoirs, biographies, history, travel, news, fiction.
DESCRIPTION.--Descriptions of external objects, of character and its development, of intellectual processes.
EXPOSITION.--Essays, treatises, editorials, reviews, criticisms.
ARGUMENT.--Argumentative essays, debates, briefs, etc.
PERSUASION OR ORATORY.--Orations, addresses, lectures, sermons.
II. POETRY
EPIC AND NARRATIVE POETRY.--The great epics, metrical romances, metrical tales, ballads, pastorals, idylls, etc.
DRAMATIC (including all narrative poetry which presents actors as speaking and acting for themselves).--Tragedy, comedy, farce, opera, melodrama, mask, interlude, etc.
LYRIC.--Odes, sacred and secular songs, elegy, sonnets, simple lyrics.
DIDACTIC.--Moral essays in verse, satiric poetry, etc.
LETTER WRITING, OR CORRESPONDENCE.
A _letter_ is a written communication on any subject from one person to another. In other words, it is written conversation, or “speaking by the pen.” Letters deserve very careful attention, for no species of composition is more generally used by all classes of persons. Remember that the letter “bespeaks the person,” and that many will judge of a person’s character and attainments from his correspondence.
The first endeavor of a writer should be to express himself as easily and naturally as in conversation, though with more method and conciseness.
So, before you begin to write a letter, arrange in your mind the ideas you wish to convey; then express them as if you were talking to the person to whom you are writing.
=Divisions of a Letter.=--In every business or social letter there are five things to consider: the _heading_, the _introduction_, the _body of the letter_, the _complimentary close_, and the _signature_. Business letters should have an introductory address before the salutation.
THE HEADING.--The heading consists of the name of the _place_ at which the letter is written, and the _date_. If you write from a city like St. Louis, Boston, or New York, give the door number, the name of the street, of the city, and of the state. If you are at a hotel or a school, its name may take the place of the door number and the name of the street. If in a small country place, give your postoffice address, the name of the county, and that of the state.
The date consists of the month, the day of the month, and the year.
Leave at least one inch vacant on the top of the first page.
Put on the first line, and to the right, your own postoffice _address_; and, either on the same line or on the next, the _date_--that is, the month, day, and year, thus:
_25 Endicott Street, Boston, Mass., August 6, 1904._
THE INTRODUCTION.--The introduction consists of the _address_--the name, the title, and the place of business or the residence of the one addressed--and the _salutation_.
The _Salutation_ and the _Complimentary Close_ should be appropriate to the person addressed. (See list of forms of Salutation and Complimentary Close on page 737).
Titles of respect and courtesy should appear in the address. Prefix _Mr._ to a man’s name; _Messrs._ to the names of several gentlemen; _Miss_ to that of a young lady; _Mrs._ to that of a married lady. Prefix _Dr._ to the name of a physician, but never _Mr._ _Dr._; _Rev._ to the name of a clergyman, or _Rev. Mr._ if you do not know his christian name; _Rev. Dr._ if he is a Doctor of Divinity, or write _Rev._ before the name and _D. D._ after it.
Salutations vary with the station of the one addressed, or the writer’s degree of intimacy with him. Strangers may be addressed as _Sir_, _Rev. Sir_, _General_, _Madam_, etc.; acquaintances as _Dear Sir_, _Dear Madam_, etc.; friends as _My dear Sir_, _My dear Madam_, _My dear Jones_, etc.; and near relatives and other dear friends as _My dear Wife_, _My dear Boy_, _Dearest Ellen_, etc. Examples:
_Mr. William C. Jones, Washington, D. C._
DEAR SIR: Your letter, etc.
_American Book Co., New York City._
DEAR SIRS: Kindly send, etc.
THE BODY.--Begin the body of the letter at the end of the salutation, and on the _same_ line, if the introduction consists of four lines--you may do so even if the introduction consists of but three--in which case the comma after the salutation should be followed by a dash; otherwise, on the line _below_. (See general observations as to subject matter, style, etc.)
THE CONCLUSION consists of the _complimentary close_ and the _signature_. The forms of the complimentary close are many, and are determined by the relation of the writer to the one addressed. In letters of friendship may be used _Your sincere friend_; _Yours affectionately_; _Your loving son_ or _daughter_, etc. In business letters, use _Yours_; _Yours truly_; _Truly yours_; _Yours respectfully_; _Very respectfully yours_, etc. In official letters use _I am_, _with respect_, _your obedient servant_; _I have the honor to be your obedient servant_, etc.
The complimentary close often forms part of the last paragraph; at other times it stands separately, and then it usually begins about the middle of the line. Example:
_Very sincerely Mary E. Shattuck_.
A married woman should sign her own given name, but indicate her proper title of address; thus:
_Mrs. J. F. Martin._
THE SUPERSCRIPTION, on the outside of the envelope, is the same as the address, consisting of the name, the titles, and the full directions of the one addressed. It should be written very plainly, and include the town, county, state, and country, if it goes abroad.
The number of the postoffice box, or the door number and the name of the street, or the name of the county, may stand at the lower left-hand corner.
=Style of Letters.=--It makes a considerable difference in our style whether we write as officials or business men, or as individual members of society.
The style should be determined in some measure by the nature of the subject, but in a still greater degree by the relative positions of the writer and the person addressed. On important subjects, the composition is expected to be forcible and impressive, on lighter subjects, easy and vivacious; in condolence, tender and sympathetic; in congratulation, lively and joyous. To superiors, it should be respectful; to inferiors, courteous; to friends, familiar; and to relatives, affectionate.
We may, therefore, usefully distinguish letters into three kinds--_official_ or _business_ letters and _personal_ or _social_ letters, and _ceremonial letters_ or _notes_.
=Official or Business Letters.=--These include all those written by a person in the capacity of an officer, a professional man, a merchant, a tradesman, etc. They are classed together because they are mainly subject to the same rules.
In writing business letters, the following rules should be observed:
1. Be very _clear_, so that your exact meaning cannot fail to be understood at first sight. Read your letter over with close attention to see that all your thoughts are correctly, fully, and clearly expressed.
2. Take care that the _handwriting_ be legible, else you may get _boots_ for _books_, _matches_ for _hatchets_ or _latches_, _two ponies_ instead of _one hundred pansies_.
3. Be _brief_ and to the point; business men have no time to waste.
4. Confine yourself to _strict business_. If you wish to add matters of friendship, it is well to write them on a separate leaf, that the business portion may be separately filed.
5. Write _grammatical and idiomatic_ English, and paragraph and punctuate as in other kinds of writing.
=Personal and Social Letters.=--Under this head may be placed those letters written by any person in his private capacity as an individual. Such letters may be dictated by friendship, by charity or kindness, by politeness, by respect, by gratitude, by self-interest, or by any other reasonable motive.
Among these are the following:
LETTERS OF FRIENDSHIP are such as are dictated by mutual affection between relatives and friends. They should be natural, easy, frank, without the least affectation. “I wish you to open to me your soul, not your library,” said Mme. de Sévigné, who wrote exquisitely herself. Such letters may treat of any subject of common interest to the parties concerned. Their language is that of the heart. Kindness, affection, charity, good-nature should dictate, prudence and common sense supervise them.
LETTERS OF CONGRATULATION are written on occasion of the New Year, a birthday, a preferment, or when a friend has met with some uncommon good fortune, and should be dictated by genuine friendship and sincere esteem, and expressed modestly without any exaggerated praise.
LETTERS OF CONDOLENCE.--These require great skill and care. Act like the humane surgeon who touches the wound gently, and only to heal it. If your correspondent knows the sad news already, sympathize sincerely with him. If you are to announce the bad news yourself, prepare the way slowly; state the news as delicately as you can. Express your grief again before you conclude.
LETTERS OF INTRODUCTION OR RECOMMENDATION require special prudence. Think first whether it is proper to write such a letter at all for such a person. Avoid two dangers: do not offend the applicant for a recommendation, do not deceive your correspondent by exaggerated praise of the one recommended.
If the applicant is _worthy_ state his merits, express reasonable confidence in him. If he is _unworthy_ or doubtfully worthy, give him a letter which he will prefer not to present; for every such letter is an open letter, which the bearer is expected to read before delivering.
A letter of introduction or recommendation should never be sealed, as the bearer to whom it is given ought to know the contents.
LETTERS OF PETITION should be modest and every way moderate. Ingratiate yourself in a manly way; state your reasons briefly but forcibly; show your appreciation of the trouble your correspondent may be put to in consequence of the favor; promise gratitude.
In answering such letters favorably be brief and show your pleasure at rendering the little service asked. In refusing show how reluctantly you do so; give good reasons for it. Express your hope of finding, some other time, a better opportunity of showing your affection or esteem.
LETTERS OF THANKS should never be neglected when a favor has been received. Express your appreciation both of the favor and of the kindness with which it was bestowed. Hope for an opportunity, not of repaying the person, but of showing your gratitude.
=Ceremonial Letters and Notes.=--Under this heading may be classed notes of _invitation_, _acceptance_, and _regret_, both formal and informal.
_Informal_ invitations, acceptances, and regrets are simply friendly notes written always in the _first_ person. They vary in form to suit the occasion. They should be cordial in tone, but brief, and are in better taste when confined to the subject of the invitation, outside items being permissible only under special circumstances which may require their mention.
An informal invitation should never, under any circumstances, be answered in the third person.
Invitation:--
_30 Rampart St., May 4th, 1917._
_Dear Mr. Brooks:_
_We would be very pleased to have you dine with us on Monday next, the 12th, at seven o’clock, if disengaged._
_Cordially yours, Helen Clements._
Acceptance:
_Eastern Point, April 29th, 1917._
_Dear Mrs. Clements:_
_I will be most happy to dine with you on Monday, the 12th, at seven o’clock._
_Faithfully yours, Arthur Brooks._
_Formal_ notes are always expressed in the third person, and all answers to such should correspond in form and style.
Although invitations to large affairs are usually printed from engraved plates, a few forms are here given, principally to show the correct forms of reply to the several kinds of invitation.
Invitation to a reception:
_Mr. and Mrs. Charles L. Harrington request the pleasure of your company on Thursday evening, November tenth, from eight until eleven o’clock, 896 Fifth Avenue._
Acceptance:
_Miss Evelyn Hall accepts with pleasure Mr. and Mrs. Charles L. Harrington’s invitation for Thursday evening, November tenth._
Dinner invitation:
_Mr. and Mrs. Henry W. King request the pleasure of Mr. and Mrs. Mayhew Marbury’s company at dinner on Tuesday evening, April tenth, at eight o’clock, 40 Maple Avenue._
Acceptance:
_14 West Street, March 31st, 1917._
_Mr. and Mrs. Mayhew Marbury accept with pleasure Mr. and Mrs. Henry W. King’s invitation to dinner on Tuesday evening, April tenth, at eight o’clock._
=Additional Suggestions.=--Always use good paper and black ink. Decorated or highly colored writing papers are in poor taste. Plain white or slightly tinted paper of medium weight is best.
All letters and notes should be written legibly and neatly, carefully punctuated, and absolutely correct as to spelling.
All letters and notes, with a few special exceptions, require a prompt acknowledgment of receipt, if not an immediate answer.
This is especially the case in business letters and those containing enclosures of any kind.
All letters and notes should be courteous. To inferiors in station be kindly; to superiors, respectful; and to equals, friendly.
All letters and notes asking information should be re-read immediately before answering.
OFFICIAL AND TITLED SALUTATIONS
Titles in the United States are either official or academic.
OFFICIAL TITLES
TO THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES, an official letter commences, _Sir._
Conclusion: _I have the honor to remain your most obedient servant._
Salutation of a social letter: _My dear Mr. President._
Conclusion: _I have the honor to remain most respectfully_ [or _sincerely_] _yours_.
Inscription on envelope: _President Woodrow Wilson._
TO THE VICE-PRESIDENT, an official letter begins, _Sir_, or _Dear Sir_.
Conclusion: _I have, Sir, the honor to remain your most obedient servant_.
Salutation of a social letter: _My Dear Mr. Marshall._
Conclusion: as given for president.
Inscription on envelope: _The Vice-President, Thomas R. Marshall._
TO A JUSTICE OF THE SUPREME COURT, an official letter begins and concludes as in the case of a vice-president.
Salutation of a social letter: _Dear Mr. Justice White_, or _Dear Justice White_.
Conclusion: _Believe me, truly_ [or _most sincerely_] _yours_, etc.
Inscription on envelope: _Mr. Justice Edward D. White._
TO A SENATOR, an official letter begins and concludes as to a vice-president.
Salutation of a social letter: _My Dear Senator Lewis._
Conclusion: as given for a justice.
Inscription on envelope: _Senator Hamilton Lewis_ or _To the Hon. Hamilton Lewis_.
TO A MEMBER OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES, an official letter begins as to a senator.
Conclusion: as in the case of a vice-president.
Salutation of a social letter: _My dear Mr. Clark._
Conclusion: as given for a justice.
Inscription on envelope: _Hon. Champ Clark._
TO A MEMBER OF THE CABINET, an official letter begins and concludes as to a vice-president.
The salutation and conclusion of a social letter are as in the case of a member of the House of Representatives.
Inscription on envelope: _Honorable Robert Lansing, Secretary of State._
TO THE GOVERNOR OF A STATE, an official letter begins: _Sir._
Conclusion: _I have the honor, Sir, to remain your obedient servant._
A social letter begins: _Dear Governor McCall_ or _Dear Mr. McCall_.
Conclusion: _Believe me, truly_ [or _most sincerely_] _yours_.
Inscription on envelope: _Governor_ [or _Hon._] _Samuel W. McCall._
TO A MAYOR, an official letter begins: _Sir_ or _Your Honor_.
Conclusion: Same as a governor.
Social letter begins: _My dear Mayor Rockwood_ or _Dear Mr. Rockwood_.
Conclusion: Same as a governor.
Inscription on envelope: _His Honor the Mayor of Cambridge, Wendell D. Rockwood._
CLERICAL TITLES
THE POPE--_His Holiness Pope Benedict XV._
TO A ROMAN CATHOLIC ARCHBISHOP, an official or a social letter begins: _Most Reverend and Dear Sir._
Conclusion: _I have the honor to remain your humble servant._
Inscription on envelope: _The Most Reverend John J. Keane, Archbishop of Dubuque, Iowa._
TO A CARDINAL, whether official or social, a letter begins: _Your Eminence._
Conclusion: as to an archbishop.
Inscription on envelope: _His Eminence Cardinal Gibbons._
TO A ROMAN CATHOLIC BISHOP, either an official or a social letter begins: _Right Reverend and Dear Sir._
Conclusion: as to an archbishop.
Inscription on envelope: _To the Right Reverend Philip J. Garrigan, Bishop of Sioux City, Iowa._
TO A PROTESTANT BISHOP, an official letter begins as in the case of a Roman Catholic bishop. A social letter begins: _Dear Bishop Lawrence._
Conclusion: _I have the honor to remain your obedient servant_, or _I remain respectfully_ or _sincerely yours_.
Address on envelope: The same as to a Roman Catholic bishop.
TO AN ARCHBISHOP OF THE ANGLICAN CHURCH, an official letter begins: _My Lord Archbishop, may it please your Grace._
Conclusion: _I remain, My Lord Archbishop, your Grace’s most obedient servant._
Salutation of a social letter: _My dear Lord Archbishop._
Conclusion: _I have the honor to remain, my dear Lord Archbishop._
Inscription on envelope: _The Most Rev. His Grace the Archbishop of York._
TO AN ANGLICAN BISHOP, an official letter begins: _My Lord._
Conclusion: _I have the honor to remain your Lordship’s obedient servant._
Salutation of a social letter: _My Dear Lord Bishop._
Conclusion: _I have the honor to remain, my dear Lord Bishop, faithfully yours._
Inscription on envelope: _To the Right Rev. the Lord Bishop of Oxford._
ENGLISH TITLES OF ROYALTY, NOBILITY AND OFFICE
The following list illustrates the various titles used for the different ranks among individuals either in the complimentary address or superscription on the envelope:
1. _In Letters or Conversation._ 2. _The Directions of Letters._
THE ROYAL FAMILY
THE KING--
1. Sir; Most Gracious Sovereign; May it please your Majesty.
2. To the King’s Most Excellent Majesty.
THE SONS AND DAUGHTERS, BRETHERN AND SISTERS OF SOVEREIGNS--
1. Sir, or Madam, May it please your Royal Highness.
2. To His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales.
To Her Royal Highness the Duchess of Cambridge.
OTHER BRANCHES OF THE ROYAL FAMILY--
1. Sir, or Madam, May it please your Highness.
2. To His Royal Highness the Duke of Cambridge; or, To Her Highness the Princess Mary of Cambridge.
THE NOBILITY
A DUKE, OR DUCHESS--
1. My Lord, or My Lady, May it please your Grace.
2. To His Grace the Duke of Bedford; or, To Her Grace the Duchess of Bedford.
A MARQUIS, OR MARCHIONESS--
1. My Lord, or My Lady, May it please your Lordship, or May it please your Ladyship.
2. To the Most Noble the Marquis, or Marchioness, of Westminster.
AN EARL OR COUNTESS--The same.
To the Right Honorable the Earl, or Countess, of Shrewsbury.
A VISCOUNT OR VISCOUNTESS--
1. My Lord, or Madam, May it please your Lordship, or, May it please your Ladyship.
2. To the Right Honorable Viscount, or Viscountess, Lifford.
A BARON OR BARONESS--The same.
To the Right Honorable, the Lord Wensleydale, or The Lady St. John.
THE WIDOW OF A NOBLEMAN is addressed in the same style, with the introduction of the word Dowager in the superscription of her letters.
To the Right Hon. the Dowager Countess of Chesterfield.
THE SONS OF DUKES AND MARQUISES, AND THE ELDEST SONS OF EARLS, have, by courtesy, the titles of Lord and Right Honorable; and all the daughters have those of a Lady and Right Honorable.
THE YOUNGER SONS OF EARLS, AND THE SONS AND DAUGHTERS OF VISCOUNTS AND BARONS, are styled HONORABLE.
OFFICIAL MEMBERS OF THE STATE
A MEMBER OF HIS MAJESTY’S MOST HONORABLE PRIVY COUNCIL--
1. Sir, or My Lord, Right Honorable Sir, or My Lord, as the case may require.
2. To the Right Honorable ----,[14] His Majesty’s Principal Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs.
AMBASSADORS AND GOVERNORS--
1. Sir, or My Lord, as the case may be; May it please your Excellency.
2. To his Excellency the French (or other) Ambassador.
3. To his Excellency ----,[14] Lieutenant General and General Governor of that part of the United Kingdom called Ireland.
JUDGES--
1. My Lord, May it please your Lordship.
2. To the Right Honorable ----, Lord Chief Justice of England.
THE LORD MAYOR OF LONDON, YORK, or DUBLIN, AND THE LORD PROVOST OF EDINBURGH, during office--The same.
1. My Lord, May it please your Lordship.
2. To the Right Honorable ----, Lord Mayor of London. To the Right Honorable ----, Lord Provost of Edinburgh.
THE LORD PROVOST of every other town in Scotland is styled Honorable.
THE MAYORS OF ALL CORPORATIONS (excepting the preceding Lord Mayors), and the Sheriffs, Aldermen, and the Recorder of London, are addressed Right Worshipful; and the Aldermen and Recorders of other Corporations, and the Justices of the Peace, Worshipful.
[14] Here write the name, and specify the title or rank of the person addressed, as “The Right Honorable the Earl of Wimbourne.”
THE PARLIAMENT
HOUSE OF PEERS--
1. My Lords, May it please your Lordships.
2. To the Right Honorable the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, in Parliament assembled.
HOUSE OF COMMONS--
1. May it please your Honorable House.
2. To the Honorable the Commons of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.
THE SPEAKER OF DITTO--
1. Sir, or Mr. Speaker.
2. To the Right Honorable James W. Lowther, the Speaker of the House of Commons.
A MEMBER OF THE HOUSE OF COMMONS NOT ENNOBLED--
1. Sir.
2. To Thomas Hughes, Esq., M.P.
NARRATION
Narration is a species of composition which relates the particulars of a real or fictitious event in the order of their occurrence. In a wider meaning, narration is the statement of successive facts. In a story or drama the _plot_ is the series of incidents which form the skeleton of the story.
If the subject deals with real facts, as in biography, or history, or news, the rule of _fidelity_ to the truth is essential. It requires that not only the main facts shall be true as they are narrated, but also that all the striking and important details be faithfully stated as they are known to have occurred or happened.
=Biography.=--After the _letter_, the simplest form of composition is biography. The order of events from youth to age is established.
This style of composition is strongly to be recommended for beginners. It affords excellent practice for all. It promotes a habit of putting things in order.
Outline scheme of biography:--
1. When was he born?
2. Where was he born?
3. Who were his parents?
4. Where was he educated?
5. Whom did he marry?
6. What was his profession?
7. What great work did he do?
8. When and where did he die?