Part 175

21. After _r_, _ch_, or _sh_ do not give the sound of long _u_ when the simple sound of _oo_ (long or short) should be heard; as _rule_ for _rool_, _fruit_, for _froot_.

Pronounce the following: True, truth, grew, chew, sure, sug´ar, tru´ly, crew, brute, bru´tal, rude, through, cru´el, ru´by, ru´bicund.

22. Do not substitute the sound _oo_ for that of long _u_; as _toon_ for _tune_, _doo´ty_ for _du´ty_.

Pronounce the following: Tube, duke, mute, nude, mu´sic, Tues´day, du´bious, lute, blue, illume´, illude´, in´stitute.

23. The vowel _a_, when unaccented, at the end of a word has the sound of _ä_ (as in _far_) somewhat shortened; as _com´ma_ not _com´mĭ_ nor _commā_.

Pronounce the following: Dra´ma, da´ta, pi´ca, so´fa, al´gebra, Chi´na, Amer´ica, dilem´ma, mi´ca, alpac´a, a´rea, neb´ula.

24. Give to the vowel _a_ in the unaccented terminal syllables _al_, _ant_, _ance_, its short sound, but do not make it prominent.

Pronounce the following: Na´tional, par´tial, fi´nal, eter´nal, ig´norant, ty´rant, in´stant, fla´grant, vig´ilance, ig´norance, in´stance, fra´grance.

25. Do not give to the vowel _a_ (as in _far_), when unaccented and made brief, the sound of short _u_; as _ŭbase´_ for _abase´_, _ŭrouse_ for _arouse´_.

Pronounce the following: Abound´, abate´, above´, about´, abridge´, amuse´, fanat´ic, ag´gravate, traduce´.

26. Do not give to long _e_, when unaccented and slightly abridged, the sound of short _u_; as _ŭvent´_ for _event´_, _soci´ŭty_ for _soci´ety_.

Pronounce the following: Emo´tion, vari´ety, sobri´ety, sati´ety, anxi´ety, impi´ety.

27. Do not give to long _o_, when unaccented and slightly abridged, the sound of short _u_; as _ŭbey´_ for _obey´_, _prŭpose´_ for _propose´_.

Pronounce the following: Opin´ion, obe´dience, provide´, promote´, provoke´, pota´to, tobac´co, posi´tion, soci´ety, el´oquence, disposi´tion, mel´ody, composi´tion.

28. Do not sound short _o_, when unaccented, as short _u_; as _ŭbscure´_ for _obscure´_, _cŭmmit´tee_ for _commit´tee_.

Pronounce the following: Observe´, oppose´, command´, conceal´, condi´tion, contain´, content´, possess´.

29. Do not lay too much stress on an unaccented syllable or a syllable having a secondary accent; as _pri´ma´ry_ for _pri´mary_, _ex´act´ly_ for _exact´ly_.

Pronounce the following: Gigan´tic, precise´ly, salva´tion, loca´tion, vaca´tion, ter´ritory, sec´ondary, mat´rimony, prom´issory, vac´cinated.

30. In unaccented syllables do not bring out the quality of the vowel too distinctly.

In many words, “there would be pedantry in scrupulously avoiding the short and easier sounds which the organs are inclined to adopt.” For instance, _cab´bage_ in common conversation might be _cab´bij_, _pal´ace_, _pal´ăs_, etc.

a. When _a_ at the end of an unaccented syllable is followed in the next syllable by _n_ or _r_, it has nearly the sound of short _e_, as in _mis´cel-la-ny_, _cus´tom-a-ry_.

b. In the unaccented final syllable _ate_, of adjectives and nouns, the vowel _a_ generally has a sound verging toward short _e_, as in _del´i-cate_, _con-sum´mate_ (_adj_.).

EXPRESSION

Speak firmly; take time. Articulate clearly; do not slur.

Correct pronunciation: requires--1. Exact vowel sounds. 2. Distinct terminal consonants.

Read just as you would speak under the same circumstances, so that if you could be heard without being seen, it would be impossible to tell whether you were reading or talking.

Avoid a monotone. Dull repetition of words in the same pitch is disagreeable. Enter into the spirit of what you read, and give expression to your natural feeling.

The simplest way to emphasize a word is to pause after it. The word may be spoken a little louder or may be pronounced more slowly than the other words in the sentence.

When speaking in public, address the person standing just behind the back row.

INFLECTION OF THE VOICE

Rising inflection is used in incomplete thought, or thought carried through consecutive phrases. It is used to express emotion, surprise, prayer.

Falling inflection denotes complete thought. It expresses command, authority.

The voice has three pitches:--upper, middle, lower.

The upper register is the medium for the expression of excitement and earnestness. It must be used with care and artistic moderation, otherwise it is unpleasant.

Use it rarely. Be careful of straining the voice.

The middle register is used in familiar speaking, and general conversation. It is the most durable, and is the vehicle for everyday use.

The lower register is suited to grave, solemn, impassioned utterances. It should be used cautiously. Practice will mellow the voice.

WRITTEN ENGLISH.

Written English is the art of putting words together in order to convey our thoughts to others. Good composition conveys our thoughts correctly, clearly, and pleasantly, so as to make them readily understood and easily remembered.

To express ourselves well we must first have something to say. If we have not been able to come to any definite conclusion about a subject, we should be silent.

We must next choose the right names for the things or actions of which we are going to speak. This is not always easy, for we are apt to talk loosely of quantities and qualities; to say there are “thousands” when there are only hundreds, to call an event “marvelous” when it is only unusual, or to refer to “ages” when there are only years.

Again, we must arrange our words in the right way, so that they shall fit one another and combine to make good sense, just as we must put bricks or stones together properly to make a building stand. All language is a construction; it is the building or binding of words.

There are many forms of written English, or composition--from a simple letter to the most elaborate treatise--but all are made up of the same elements, namely: words, sentences and paragraphs. It is essential, therefore, that these elements be thoroughly mastered at the outset. Beyond this comes the matter of style, the essentials of which may be summed up in four words: _Accuracy_, _Clearness_, _Strength_ and _Grace_.

_Accuracy_ and _Clearness_ are requisite in all kinds of writing to insure the faithful presentation of thought.

_Strength_ and _Grace_ are more especially applicable to the higher branches of prose composition and to poetry.

=Grammatical Connections.=--No expression can form part of a good composition unless it be constructed in accordance with correct grammar. Every sentence is inaccurate which gives wrong forms of the parts of speech, or violates the rules of syntax. The most common errors are of two kinds:

(1) Errors in the use of single words or forms.

(2) False concords, that is, wrong genders, numbers, cases and tenses. (See Right and Wrong Use of Words.)

RULES RELATING TO STYLE

GOOD STYLE POOR STYLE

{Correct forms }Wrong forms. {and concords. }Solecisms. { PURITY {Classic or good }Barbarisms. prescribes {English words. } the use of { {Proper words, _i.e._,} {words fit for the }Improprieties. {occasion. }

{ {Roundabout, inflated { {or pedantic {Simplicity. {words or { {phrases. { { {Tautology. PERSPICUITY {Brevity. {Pleonasm. prescribes { {Verbosity. { { {Ambiguity or { {Obscurity. { { _a._ In words. {Precision. { _b._ In sentences { { from bad { { arrangement.

CHOICE AND USE OF WORDS.--Good usage--the usage of the best writers and speakers--sanctions only words that are in reputable, national, and present usage.

The term _Barbarism_ is applied to unauthorized language. Some offenses against good usage are the following:

1. _Obsolete_ words, words gone out of use.

2. _Provincialisms_, words peculiar to some locality.

3. _Colloquialisms_, words peculiar to familiar conversation.

4. _Solecisms_, ungrammatical expressions.

5. _Archaisms_, expressions which would be obsolete except for their occasional use in poetry.

The term _Impropriety_ is used to designate reputable words misapplied.

_Slang_ is a general name for current, vulgar, unauthorized language. It may take the form of barbarism or impropriety.

Use the fewest and simplest words that the subject will bear.

Specific words are usually more forcible than general terms.

Foreign and technical terms should be used with care.

Use idioms wherever it is possible.

_Coherence_ demands that the parts shall be so connected that the thought will be clear and compact.

The length of sentences is governed by the effect to be produced. Short sentences give vigor, emphasis, and rapidity. Long sentences give weight and rhythm.

A well-constructed sentence keeps the same subject as long as possible.

All modifying elements should be placed as near as possible to the words they modify.

A _Dangling Element_--one that modifies nothing--must be avoided. Example: _Looking into the water_, a fish was seen.

A “_Squinting Construction_” is one that is so poorly placed in the sentence as to modify equally well the part preceding and the part following. Example: Will you say to Mr. Brown, _when he comes_, I will be ready.

_Redundancy_--A weak repetition of an idea--must be avoided.

_Pleonasm_ consists in the addition of words which can be omitted without affecting the construction or the meaning of the sentence.

_Tautology_, or repeating a thought that has just been stated.

_Verbosity_ or _Prolixity_ is the fault in sentence-making caused by using needless words.

Don’t begin a sentence with--and, but, also, so, then, next, however, after this, of course, in consequence, as a matter of fact.

THE PARAGRAPH.--A _Paragraph_ is a division in composition treating only one part of the subject. A paragraph must conform to the same rules that should govern the whole composition; that is, it must show unity, massing, and coherence.

_Unity_ demands that all the thoughts in a sentence, in a paragraph, or in the whole theme shall cluster about one main idea.

_Massing_ demands that the important thoughts shall be placed in prominent places.

_Coherence_ demands that thoughts shall be closely connected.

The length of paragraphs is not to be regulated absolutely: the subject-matter to be treated, the appearance of the page, and the comfort of the reader must all be considered. In a dialogue a new paragraph is begun with each change of speaker.

THE SENTENCE.--Rhetorically, sentences may be classified as periodic, loose, and balanced.

A _Periodic_ sentence is one that holds the thought in suspense until the end. Example: In all his long life, from the time when, as a twelve-year-old boy, he was roaming in the fields and fishing the streams, to the days of his manhood, when he was upholding the honor of his state in the Senate, he showed the same simple, democratic nature.

A _Loose_ sentence is one in which there is no attempt to show suspense; the different parts may come in where natural ease of expression suggests.

A _Balanced_ sentence is one in which contrasting thoughts are stated in similar forms. Example: God made the country and man made the town.

The periodic and the balanced sentence are likely to result in artificiality of expression unless used with care. The loose sentence gives ease and naturalness, but these desirable qualities may easily change to slovenliness of expression in the hands of a careless writer.

Sentences, like paragraphs, should show unity, massing, and coherence.

_Unity_ demands that the sentence shall have one main idea. The unity of a sentence is destroyed by putting together ideas that should be separated, by making the wrong idea subordinate, or by making ideas coördinate that are not of equal importance.

Examples of lack of unity:--

1. The words are very simple and I think it very strange that a tinker could write such a good book.

2. We went up the main road about half a mile, when we came to a pasture.

_Massing_ in the sentence demands that the main thought shall be placed where it will “readily catch the eye.”

RIGHT AND WRONG USE OF WORDS IN SPEAKING AND WRITING

=A and An.=--_a_ is used before a consonant sound; _an_, before a vowel sound; as, “_a_ boy;” “_an_ eye;” when a vowel has a consonant sound, as in the word _eulogy_, _a_, and not _an_, is required. In the case of words beginning with _h_, _an_ is always required when _h_ is silent; as, “_an_ heir;” when _h_ is aspirated, _a_ is required, unless the accent is on the second syllable, when _an_ is used; as, “_a_ history;” “_an_ historian.”

=Abbreviations.=--Such abbreviations or contractions as _e’er_, _ne’er_, _o’er_, _e’en_, _’tis_, _’mid_, and _’neath_, are legitimate in verse, but should not be used in prose.

=Ability for capacity.=--_Ability_ is the power of doing; _capacity_ the faculty of receiving. “The _ability_ is in me to do him good.” “Man’s _capacities_ have never been measured.”

=Abortive.=--That is _abortive_ which is premature, not brought to completion. A plan may be _abortive_ but not an act. We may speak of an _abortive_ effort.

=About.=--Not to be used as _almost_. “The day is _almost_ gone,” not “The day is _about_ gone.”

=Above= is an adverb, not an adjective. Say “The address given _above_,” not “The _above_ address;” the “foregoing section,” not the “_above_ section.”

=Accept of.=--Never use the preposition after this verb. We _accept_ invitations, presents, hospitality, and the like.

=Accept and Except.=--_Accept_ means to take when offered; _except_ means to leave out, to exclude. I _accepted_ the gift. All _except_ two will go.

=Accord.=--To _accord_ means to render or bestow upon another, as honor: therefore one should never say, “The information he desired was _accorded_ him.”

=Administer.=--The man died from blows _administered_ by the policeman. Oaths, medicine, affairs of state are _administered_. Blows are _dealt_.

=Affect, Effect.=--To _affect_ means to influence or to pretend. To _effect_ means to bring about. “He _affected_ intoxication.” “He _affected_ the audience strongly.” “I shall _effect_ a reform.”

=Afraid.=--The adjective _afraid_ should not be used for the verb _fear_; thus: we say, “I am _afraid_ of fire,” but “I _fear_ I cannot go,” not “I am _afraid_ I cannot go.”

=Aggravate= means to heighten, intensify, or make worse. Do not use it for _annoy_ or _provoke_.

=Ain’t.=--This is illiterately employed as a contraction for _are not_, _am not_, _is not_. Even as a contraction of _am not_ it is censured by many critics, the form _I’m not_ being universally preferred. “Am I not?” is required in interrogative sentences.

=Allow.=--This word is frequently misused for _think_, as “I _allow_ that I shall go to town.” Say, “I _think_ that,” etc.

=Allude= means to refer to indirectly, and not the same as _mention_. “By _mentioning_ his lifelong companion he _alluded_ to his wife.”

=Almost.=--Careless speakers sometimes err in saying _most_ for _almost_, as, for example, “I have read _most_ all the books in the library,” for “_almost_ all.”

=Among and Between.=--_Among_ is distributive, and may apply to any number more than two; _between_ is used of only two persons or things; as, “They discussed this _among_ themselves;” “This is _between_ us two.”

=Among One Another.=--“_Among one another_” is censured by critics, “_with_ one another,” or “among themselves” being suggested as preferable.

=And= should not be used instead of _to_ in such sentences as “I’m going to go and get it,” for “I’m going to get it”; “Try and do it,” for “Try to do it.”

=Angry At and Angry With.=--“Angry _at_” is used when expressing anger for an animal or an inanimate object; “Angry _with_,” for a human being; as, “He is _angry at_ his dog;” “He is _angry with_ his brother.”

=Anybody else’s, Anybody’s else.=--The predominance of usage seems to be in favor of the first form, which is correct according to analogy of similar cases, which “throw” the apostrophe and s to the last word of the unified expression, generally nouns in apposition.

=Any One, One,= _anybody_, _each_, _any one_, _everybody_, _either_, _neither_, _one_, _some one_, _somebody_, should be followed by singular pronouns, or verbs.

_Any one_, _anybody_, _each_, _every one_, _everybody_, _either_, _neither_, _nobody_, _some one_, _somebody_, may be followed by _he_ or _his_.

“_Any one_ of these patterns _is_ suitable.” “_Every one_ of the ladies _is_ here.” “_Each one_ of the soldiers _has_ a new uniform.” “_If any one wishes_ to make a suggestion, I wish _he_ (or she, or he or she) would make it.” “_Anybody_ in _his_ senses would have done it.”

_One_ should be followed, by _one_ or _one’s_. “_One_ dislikes to be told of _one’s_ errors.”

=Appreciate= means to estimate justly. “I appreciate his ill-will.” means “I am fully aware of the extent and intensity of his ill-will.”

=Apt, Likely, Liable.=--_Apt_ means _quick_ or _skillful_. “He is apt to learn,” means that he learns readily. “He is likely to learn,” means that he will probably learn. “He is liable to learn,” is incorrect. _Liable for_ means responsible for; _liable to_ means subject to. “He is liable for the entire sum, and liable to imprisonment if he does not pay.”

=Apprehend and Comprehend.=--_Apprehend_ means to _perceive_; as, “I _apprehend_ danger.” _Comprehend_ means to _understand_; as, “I _comprehend_ your meaning.”

=As= should not be used for _that_ in such constructions as, “I do not know _that_ I do.”

=As--As, So--As.=--Use the former in affirmative and the latter in negative propositions. “We are _as_ wise _as_ our teachers.” “I am not _so_ young _as_ I used to be.”

=As If It Was.=--_Were_, and not _was_, is required after _as if_, for the reason that the supposition is not known; thus: “It looks _as if it were_ all right,” not “it looks _as if it was_ all right.”

=As though= is often used for _as if_. In the sentence “He walked _as though_ he were lame,” if the ellipsis is supplied the error will be evident. “He walked _as_ (he would walk) _though_ he were lame.” _As though_ is seldom correct.

=At, At and To, At All.=--The presence of _at_ improves such constructions as “He is _at_ home,” instead of “He is home.” _At_ and _to_ are superfluous in such sentences as, “Where is he?” and “Where has he gone?” hence, their use should be avoided. _At all_ is superfluous in such sentences as, “There is no use in your going;” “I do not know him.”

=Authoress, Actress.=--The terms “author_ess_,” “doctr_ess_,” “editr_ess_,” “poet_ess_,” “lectur_ess_,” are no longer used, _author_, _doctor_, etc., being correct for both sexes. Act_ress_, not _actor_, however, is the required form for the feminine gender.

=Avocation, Vocation.=--_Avocation_ should not be used for _vocation_. _Vocation_ is one’s employment; _avocation_, one’s diversion from that employment.

=Awful, Awfully.=--Do not use these words as intensives or for supposed force. _Awful_ should mean that which inspires awe. “The _awful_ mysteries of the world unseen.”

=Bad, Badly.=--_Bad_ is not to be used for severe, as “I have a _bad_ headache.” _Badly_ is also inelegantly used for very much, as “I need money _badly_.”

=Character.=--It is in general wrong to speak of a person as a _character_. _Character_ is justly applied to the ideal personages delineated by novelists. Possessing no real personality, they are _characters_ and nothing more.

=Character, Reputation.=--One’s _character_ is what one really is; one’s _reputation_ is what people think of one. We may have a good _character_ and a poor _reputation_, and _vice versa_.

=Choose, Chosen.=--“She has chose the blue silk.” Say “has chosen.” But say, in the imperfect, “she chose him in preference to the others.”

=Combine together.=--“He combined them together.” Omit _together_.

=Commence, Begin.=--_Begin_, when followed by a verb, takes _to_ and the infinitive after it. _Commence_ should take the present participle. We “begin to do,” we “commence working.” _Begin_ may take the participle, but _commence_ should take the infinitive.

=Consonant.=--“It is _consonant to_ our nature,” is a more usual expression than “it is _consonant with_.” But _consonant with_ is not improper.

=Contractions=, while not permissible in dignified utterance or in formal writing, are in accordance with the conversational employment of the language. The following is the list:

_I’m not_, _you’re not_, _he’s not_, _we’re not_, _they’re not_ are used in the declarative form, and _isn’t he_ (_she_, or _it_), _aren’t you_ (_we_, _they_) in the interrogative. In the declarative form, _You’re not_, _he’s not_, etc., are preferable to _you aren’t_, _he isn’t_, etc. _Am I not_ is not contracted, _ain’t_ being regarded as objectionable for _am I not_, and as a vulgarism for _isn’t_. [See _ain’t_.]

“He (she or it) _don’t_” for He (she or it) _doesn’t_ is always incorrect. _I don’t_, _you don’t_, _he doesn’t_, _we don’t_, _you don’t_, _they don’t_, are in accordance with the conversational employment of the language.

_Mayn’t I_ (or _may I not_) is correct in the interrogative form; _you can’t_ (or _you can not_) in the declarative form. In this connection note that _may_ is used when asking and granting permission, and that _can_, which ordinarily expresses ability, is used in the declarative form when denying permission; thus: “_May_ I go.” “No, you _can not_.”

The contractions _shan’t_ and _won’t_ are in accordance with conversational usage.

=Conversant.=--We are conversant _with_ men and _in_ things. _Conversant about things_ is improper.

=Converse together.=--“They conversed together for more than an hour.” Omit _together_.

=Copy.=--We copy _after_ a person; we copy _after_ actions. We copy _from_ things, as from a picture, or from a statue. In such case, a copy _from_ the work is also said to be a copy _after_ the artist.

=Correspond.=--_Correspond_, meaning to hold intercourse by means of letters, is followed by _with_. “I have corresponded with him for several years.” _With_ is also used with _correspond_, to signify _consistent with_. _Correspond_ is frequently followed by _to_, when it expresses adaptability or appropriateness. “His style of living corresponded to his means.”

=Cover over.=--“He covered it over.” Say “he covered it.”

=Dead corpses.=--“Evil spirits are not occupied about the dead corpses of bad men.” Omit _dead_; it is implied in _corpses_.

=Dependent.=--“He is dependent _of_ his father.” Say “dependent _on_.” But with independent say _of_.

=Derogate.=--Say derogate _from_, derogatory _to_, “derogation _from_,” or _to_.

=Depot, Station.=--A _depot_ is properly a place where goods or stores are kept. The place where a railway train stops for passengers may better be called a _station_.

=Did, Done.=--“Who done it?” Say “who did it?” “who has done it?”

=Differ.=--We differ _with_ a person in opinion. One differs _from_ another in other respects. The English barbarism of _differ to_, _different to_, is intolerable, and reverses the meaning of the word _to_.

=Direct, Address.=--We _address_ a letter to a person. We _direct_ it to his post office, to the point at which, or to the person through whom, he will receive it. A letter _addressed_ to the president may be _directed_ to his secretary.

=Disappointed, Agreeably Disappointed.=--It is better to say _agreeably surprised_. The meaning most closely associated with _disappointment_ is that it is not agreeable.

=Dissent.=--We dissent _from_, not _with_.

=Distinct, Distinctly.=--“The girl speaks distinct.” Say “speaks distinctly.”