Part 171

LEADERS: (1) =Ziska=, =Procopius the Great=; (2) Emperor Sigismund, Cardinal Cesarini, Frederick of Brandenburg.

CHIEF EVENTS: Revolt of Prague. Four crusades repulsed.

RESULTS: After the overthrow of the radical Hussites (Taborites) by the conservative Hussites (Calixtines) in the battle of Lipan a Catholic reaction set in which culminated in 1462 with the revocation of the compacts made by the Council of Basel with the Hussites.

=WARS OF THE ROSES=--1455-1485.

(1) =Yorkists= (=White Rose=); vs (2) Lancastrians (Red Rose).

CAUSES: Misgovernment under Henry VI. encourages Richard, duke of York, representing the second line of descent from Edward III., to claim the throne against Henry VII. (third line).

LEADERS: (1) =Richard, duke of York=, =Edward IV.=, =Richard III.=; (2) Duke of Somerset, Queen Margaret, Earl of Warwick (“King-maker”), first a Yorkish and then a Lancastrian, Henry VII.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =St. Albans=, =Northampton=, =Mortimer’s Cross=, =Towton=, =Barnet=, =Tewkesbury=; (2) Wakefield, Bosworth Field.

RESULTS: Henry Tudor (Lancastrian in the female line) secures throne as Henry VII. By his marriage with Elizabeth of York he unites the warring factions and establishes an almost despotic rule in England.

=WARS FOR CONTROL OF ITALY=--1494-1529.

(1) =French= vs. (2) Spanish.

CAUSES: Conflicting claims to the throne of Naples and to the duchy of Milan.

LEADERS: (1) =Charles VIII.=, =Louis XII.=, =Bayard=, =Francis I.=; (2) Ferdinand of Aragon, Charles V., duke of Bourbon, Fürstenburg.

CHIEF ACTIONS: Invasion of Italy by Charles VIII. (1494), League Cambray (1508), Holy League (1511).

(1) =Marignano=; (2) Pavia.

RESULTS: All the leading powers of western Europe were drawn into this struggle. By the peace of Cambraes (1529), France renounced her claims to Italy. One effect of these wars was to tie the hands of Charles V. so as to prevent his putting down Lutheranism in Germany.

=SCHMALKALDIC WAR=--1546-1547.

(1) =Charles V.= (2) League of Schmalkalden.

CAUSES: Charles V. attempts to crush Protestantism in Germany.

LEADERS: (1) =Emperor Charles V.=, =Duke Maurice of Saxony=; (2) John Frederic, Elector of Saxony, Philip, Landgrave of Hesse.

CHIEF ACTION: (1) =Mühlberg.=

RESULTS: Protestantism temporarily crushed. Its recovery in 1552 was followed by the religious peace of Augsburg 1555.

=RELIGIOUS WARS IN FRANCE=--1562-1598.

(1) =Catholics= vs. (2) Huguenots (Protestants).

CAUSE: Massacre of Huguenots at Vassy is a signal for uprising.

LEADERS: (1) =Duke of Guise=, =Henry III.=; (2) Catherine de Medici, Conde, Coligny, Henry of Navarre (Henry IV.)

CHIEF EVENTS: (1) =Massacre of St. Bartholomew= (1572); (2) Siege of Paris, Ivry (1590), Henry of Navarre becomes a Catholic (1593). Riots of Image Breakers. Council of Blood.

RESULTS: By the edict of Nantes (1598) the Huguenots are given equal political rights with Catholics, limited freedom of worship, the possession of La Rochelle and other strong places as cities of refuge.

=WAR OF LIBERATION IN THE NETHERLANDS=--1568-1648.

(1) =Spain= vs. (2) Revolted provinces in the Netherlands.

CAUSES: Political and religious tyranny of Spain. Duke of Alva enforces the Inquisition.

LEADERS: (1) =Duke of Alva=, =Alexander of Parma=; (2) William of Orange, Jan van Oldenbarneveldt, Maurice of Nassau.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Mechlin=, =Haarlem=; (2) Brill, Siege of Leyden, “Spanish Fury” at Antwerp, Pacification of Ghent (1576), Union of Utrecht (1579), Declaration of Independence (1581).

RESULTS: By the Peace of Westphalia (1648) the independence of the seven northern provinces, the United Netherlands, is recognized. The ten southern provinces continue under Spanish rule until 1713.

=THIRTY YEARS’ WAR=--1618-1648.

(1) =German Protestants and their Allies=, =England=, =Holland=, =Sweden and France= vs. (2) Imperial German Catholics and their Allies, Spain, Italy.

CAUSES: Disputes over interpretation of peace of Augsburg (religious and political disputes leading to the revolt of Bohemia). The war passes through four phases: (1) Bohemian-Palatinate, (2) Danish, (3) Swedish, (4) Swedish-French.

LEADERS: (1) =Frederick=, =Elector Palatine=, =Mansfield=, =Gustavus Adolphus= (=Sweden=), =Turenne and Conde= (=France=); (2) Emperor Ferdinand II., Maximilian of Bavaria, Tilly, Wallenstein.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Stralsund=, =Edict of Restitution=, =Breitenfeld=, =Lützen=; (2) White Hill, Magdeburg, Nōrdlingen.

RESULTS: This war is closed by the peace of Westphalia. Alsace thereby goes to France, Switzerland is separated from the empire and the Palatinate is divided. The secularized lands of northern Germany are secured to Protestantism, while leaving to Catholicism Austria, Bohemia and Bavaria. Germany is left desolate.

=CIVIL WAR IN ENGLAND=--1642-1649.

(1) =Royalists= (=Cavaliers=) vs. (2) Parliamentarians (Roundheads) allied with Scots (to 1647).

CAUSES: Charles I. attempts to force a personal government on England. His disputes with Parliament covered (1) taxation, (2) privileges of Parliament, (3) religion, (4) control of the militia.

LEADERS: (1) =Charles I.=, =Prince Rupert=, =Montrose=; (2) Cromwell, Essex, Fairfax, Leslie.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (2) Marston Moor, Naseby, Preston.

RESULTS: The second civil war (1648) determines the army leaders to bring Charles I. to trial and execution (1649). A Commonwealth was then established without King or House of Lords but with Oliver Cromwell as Protector (1653 to 1659). The son of Charles I. restored in 1660 as Charles II.

=FIRST THREE WARS OF LOUIS XIV.=--1667-1697.

(1) =France= vs. a. Spanish Netherlands; b. Dutch republic; c. Grand Alliance (German States, England, Holland).

CAUSES: Louis XIV.’s passion for fame and desire to increase French territory in Europe.

LEADERS: (1) =Turenne=, =Conde=, =Luxembourg=; (2) William III., De Ruyter.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Ravaging of Palatinate=, =Steenkirke=, =Neerwinden=; (2) Sasbach, La Hogue, Namur.

RESULT: Extension of boundaries of France to the northeast.

=SPANISH SUCCESSION (in America), QUEEN ANNE’S WAR=--1701-1714.

(1) =France=, =Spain and Bavaria= vs. (2) Austria, England, Holland, Portugal, Savoy.

CAUSES: Acceptance by Louis XIV. of the bequest of the Spanish dominion to his grandson, Philip of Anjou, in violation of the partition treaty to which he had consented.

LEADERS: (1) =Vendome Villars=, =Leopold of Dessau=; (2) Duke of Marlborough, Eugene of Savoy, Heinsius.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (2) Gibraltar, Blenheim, Ramillies, Turin, Oudenarde, Malplaquet.

RESULTS: By the peace of Utrecht in 1713 and that of Rastadt in 1714 Spain and the Indies go to Philip of Anjou; Naples, Milan, Sardinia and former Spanish Netherlands to the Austrians. England receives Newfoundland, Acadia and Hudson Bay Territory from France and Gibraltar from Spain.

=NORTHERN WAR=--1700-1721.

(1) =Sweden= vs. (2) Russia, Poland, Denmark, Saxony.

CAUSES: Peter the Great joins Poland, Denmark and Saxony for the purpose of despoiling Sweden, the first power of the north, of her Baltic ports.

LEADERS: (1) =Charles XII.=; (2) Peter the Great (Russia), Augustus II. of Saxony.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Invasion of Denmark=, =Narva=, =Invasion of Saxony=; (2) Pultava.

RESULTS: By the peace of Nystadt (1721) Sweden cedes large territories to Russia. Russia takes the place of Sweden as the foremost power of the north.

=WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION=--1740-1748.

(1) =Austria, supported by Hungary=, =Bohemia=, =England=, =Holland and Saxony= vs. (2) Prussia, France, Spain, Bavaria.

CAUSES: When Maria Theresa succeeded her father, Charles IV. of Austria, Frederick the Great of Prussia seized Silesia. This precipitated a struggle for Austrian territories. At the death of Charles VI. of Austria the right of Maria Theresa to the throne is contested chiefly by Frederick the Great of Prussia, who seizes Silesia.

LEADERS: (1) =Maria Theresa=, =George II. of England=, =Charles of Lorraine=; (2) Frederick the Great of Prussia, Emperor Charles VII., Schwerin.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Dettingen=; (2) Mollwitz, Chotusitz, Prague, Fontenoy, Hohenfriedburg, Soor.

RESULTS: By the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle Silesia is secured to Prussia, which state now becomes a great European power. This war is one phase of the long rivalry between France and Great Britain for sea power and dominion in America and India.

=SEVEN YEARS’ WAR, OR THIRD SILESIAN WAR=;

In America: =FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR=--1756-1763.

(1) =England=, =Prussia= vs. (2) France, Austria, Russia and Spain, Sweden.

CAUSES: Maria Theresa wishes to regain Silesia. Hostilities between French and English in America and India. George II.’s concern for his ancestral territory of Hanover.

LEADERS: (1) =Frederick the Great=, =Duke of Cumberland=, =Wolfe= (=America=), =Robert Clive= (=India=); (2) Daun (Austria), Charles of Lorraine, Montcalm (America).

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Dresden=, =Rossbach=, =Leuthen=, =Zorndorf=, =Minden=; (2) Kolin, Hohkirchen, Kunersdorf.

In America: (1) =Louisburg=, =Fort Duquesne=, =Quebec.=

In India: (1) =Plassey=, =Wandewash.=

RESULTS: The peace of Paris (1763) gives England Canada, the supremacy in India and certain islands, especially in the West Indies. Prussia retains Silesia. This war really founded the British empire which is based on sea power and colonial dominion.

=WARS OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION=--1792-1802.

(1) =Revolutionary France= vs. (2) Coalitions of England, Austria, Prussia, Holland and Spain. The Empire, Russia.

a. First Coalition--1792-1797.

CAUSES: Intrigues of emigrés; horror of Europe at the execution of the king; French offer of aid to revolutionists in other countries.

LEADERS: (1) =Dumouriez=, =Kellermann=, =Jourdan=, =Hoche=, =Pichegru=, =Napoleon Bonaparte=, =Moreau=; (2) Duke of Brunswick, Coburg, Charles of Austria.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Valmy=, =Occupation of Nice and Savoy=, =Jemmapes=, =Execution of king= (=1793=), =Annexation of Belgium=, =Fleurus=, =Lodi=, =Siege of Mantua=; (2) Mainz, Neerwinden, Kaiserslautern, Wurzburg.

RESULTS: By peace of Campo Formio (1797) the French frontier is advanced to the Rhine, Venice is given to Austria and the Cisalpine and Ligurian republics founded in Italy under French control.

b. Bonaparte’s Egyptian Expedition--1798-1799.

CAUSES: Bonaparte aims to prepare the way to attack Great Britain’s power in India and dreams of rivaling early conquerors of the east.

LEADERS: (1) =Napoleon Bonaparte=; (2) Nelson (England).

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Battle of the Pyramids=; (2) Battle of the Nile at Aboukir, Acre.

RESULTS: Nelson’s victory removes a serious menace to British power in India, cuts off the French in Egypt and deprives France of communication with its best troops and ablest general.

c. Second Coalition--1799-1802.

CAUSES: The mistakes of the government of the Directory and the prestige of Nelson’s victory enable Great Britain to form the Second Coalition.

LEADERS: (1) =Napoleon=, =Joubert=, =Moreau=; (2) Suvaroff, Melas, Archduke John.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Marengo=, =Hohenlinden=; Napoleon’s passage of the Alps (Great St. Bernard); (2) Novi.

RESULTS: The Peace of Presburg ends the contest between France and Austria. Much harsher terms are imposed on Austria. Peace of Luneville with Austria (1801); Peace of Amiens with England (1802); Surrender of England’s conquests except Trinidad and Ceylon; Malta to be restored to Knights of Malta.

=NAPOLEONIC WARS=--1802-1815.

(1) =France under Napoleon= vs. (2) European Powers led by England.

a. Third Coalition--1805.

CAUSES: Neither England nor France regarded the peace of Amiens as more than a truce. Among the many causes of friction leading to renewal of war, chief place was given to England’s refusal to restore Malta.

LEADERS: (1) =Napoleon=; (2) Nelson, Mack, Alexander I. (Russia), Kutusoff.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Ulm=, =Austerlitz=; (2) Trafalgar.

RESULTS: As a result of his brilliant successes, Napoleon, in 1802 becomes consul for life and in 1804 took the title emperor of the French. Confirmation of treaty of Campo Formio, with the recognition of Batavian, Helvetian, Cisalpine and Ligurian republics.

b. (Fourth) War with Prussia and Russia--1806-1807.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Double battle of Jena and Auerstädt=, =Berlin decree=, =Eylau= (=indecisive=), =Friedland.=

RESULTS: By the treaties of Tilsit (1807) Russia recognizes Napoleon’s relatives as kings of Naples, Holland and Westphalia and consents to the creation of the Confederation of the Rhine and the grand duchy of Warsaw under Napoleon’s control. Alexander and Napoleon combine to dominate Europe. Prussia cedes territories containing half her population.

c. Peninsular War--1808-1814.

CAUSES: Rebellion of Spain against Joseph Bonaparte, whom Napoleon had placed on the throne.

LEADERS: (1) =Soult=, =Massena=; (2) Duke of Wellington.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Corunna=; (2) Talavera, Lines of Torres Vedras, Albuera, Salamanca, Vittoria, Toulouse.

RESULTS: French expelled from the peninsula.

d. Fifth War with Austria--1809.

LEADERS: (1) =Napoleon=; (2) Archduke Charles.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Aspern,=, =Wagram.=

RESULTS: Austria cedes thirty-two thousand square miles of territory, containing three and one-half million inhabitants.

e. Invasion of Russia--1812.

CAUSE: Alexander’s refusal to enforce Napoleon’s continental system, and other causes of dispute.

LEADERS: (1) =Napoleon=, =Marshal Ney=; (2) Kutusoff, Barclay de Tolly.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Smolensk=, =Borodino.= Burning of Moscow, Retreat from Moscow, Passage of the Beresina.

RESULT: Less than twenty thousand of the half million men in Napoleon’s army recrossed the Russian frontier.

f. War of Liberation--1813-1814.

CAUSES: The disastrous Russian campaign, together with the steady progress of the British in the peninsular war encouraged the oppressed states of Germany to rise against Napoleon’s tyranny, Prussia taking the lead.

LEADERS: (1) =Napoleon,=, =Ney=, =Macdonald=; (2) Frederick, William III., Francis I., Alexander I., Schwarzenberg, Blücher, Bernadotte.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Lützen=, =Bautzen=, =Dresden=; (2) Dennewitz, Leipzig, (Battle of the Nations). Allies enter Paris.

RESULTS: Driven from Russia in 1812, from Germany in 1813, Napoleon in 1814 was forced to surrender France itself. By the treaty of Fontainebleau he was given the Island of Elba and an annual revenue of two million francs.

g. Waterloo Campaign--1815.

CAUSES: Quarrels among the allies and dissatisfaction of French with Louis XVIII. tempt Napoleon to return from Elba.

LEADERS: (1) =Napoleon=, =Ney=; (2) Wellington, Blücher.

CHIEF ACTIONS: Napoleon lands at Cannes (March 1); enters Paris March 20.

(1) =Ligny=; (2) Quatre Bras, Waterloo (June 18).

RESULTS: Waterloo marks the final downfall of Napoleon. He is transported to the island of St. Helena, where he died in 1821. In the Congress of Vienna the allies reconstructed Europe, restoring in general the legitimate rulers and erecting barriers against democratic movements and liberal ideas.

=WAR OF GRECIAN INDEPENDENCE=--1821-1829.

(1) =Greeks, aided by England, Russia and France= vs. (2) Turks.

CAUSES: Revived feeling of Greek nationality, stimulated by a widespread secret society working for a restoration of a Greek empire at Constantinople.

LEADERS: (1) =Ypsilanti=, =Diebitsch= (Russia), =Codrington= (England), =Byron= (England); (2) Ibrahim, Pasha.

CHIEF ACTIONS: Massacre of Greeks at Chios.

(1) =Navarino=, =Adrianople=; (2) Missolonghi.

RESULTS: The treaty of Adrianople, 1829, compelled Turkey to acknowledge the independence of Greece, which chose as king the Bavarian prince Otto I.

=CRIMEAN WAR=--1854-1856.

(1) =Russia= vs. (2) Turkey aided by Great Britain, France and Sardinia.

CAUSES: The question of the political status and future of the lands of the Turkish empire. Immediate cause, the claim of Russia to a protectorate over all Greek Christians living under the sultan’s rule.

LEADERS: (1) =Mentchikoff=, =Gortchakoff=; (2) Canrobert, Pelissier (France), Raglan, Simpson (England).

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Balaclava=; (2) Alma, Siege of Sebastopol, Inkermann.

RESULTS: In the peace of Paris (1856) Russia’s claim to a protectorate is disallowed, the Danube is opened to navigation and the Black Sea is closed to war vessels of all powers.

=SEPOY MUTINY=--1857-1858.

(1) =Sepoys= vs. (2) English.

CAUSES: Uneasiness created by the rapid progress of British ways and rule causes a revolt of native Sepoy troops of India. Immediate cause the rumor that cartridges furnished troops were greased with a mixture of hog and beef fat--the one animal an object of loathing to Mohammedans, the other of religious worship to the Hindu.

LEADERS: (1) =Nana Sahib=; (2) Nicholson, Havelock, Campbell.

CHIEF ACTIONS: Mutiny of Sepoys at Meerut.

(1) =Massacre at Cawnpore=; (2) Delhi, Relief of Lucknow.

RESULTS: Following the suppression of the mutiny the charter of the East India company is revoked and India passes directly under the crown, a secretary of state for India being added to the British ministry.

=WAR OF ITALIAN LIBERATION=--1859.

(1) =Sardinia-Piedmont and France= vs. (2) Austria.

CAUSES: Since 1848 Sardinia-Piedmont had been the center of the movement for Italian unity. Following promises of aid from Napoleon III. Cavour traps Austria into declaring war over the question of disarmament.

LEADERS: (1) =Victor Emmanuel=, =Napoleon III.=, =Garibaldi=; (2) Francis Joseph II., Gyulay.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Montebello=, =Magenta=, =Solferino.= Peace signed at Zurich, November 10, 1859.

RESULTS: By this war Victor Emmanuel gained Lombardy. In 1860 Tuscany, Parma, Modena and the papal legations were added. In 1861 he gained Sicily and Naples, together with the title King of Italy. Venetia followed as a result of alliance with Prussia in 1866 and the addition of Rome in 1871 completed the unification of Italy.

=DANISH WAR=--1864.

(1) =Austria and Prussia= vs. (2) Denmark.

CAUSES: Incorporation of the duchy of Schleswig with Denmark in violation of treaty of 1852.

LEADERS: (1) =Gablenz= (=Austria=), =Prince Frederick=, =Charles= (=Prussia=); (2) Dermeza, Gerlach.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Invasion of Jutland=, =Storming of Düppel.=

RESULTS: Denmark gives up Schleswig-Holstein, which is jointly administered by Austria and Prussia.

=AUSTRO-PRUSSIAN WAR=--1866.

(1) =Prussia with smaller North German States and Italy= vs. (2) Austria, Hanover, Saxony, and South German States.

CAUSES: Friction over Schleswig-Holstein enables Bismarck to force Austria into a war for supremacy in Germany.

LEADERS: (1) =William I.=, =Prince Frederick=, =Charles=, =Moltke=, =Victor Emmanuel=; (2) Benedek, Archduke Albert, Gablenz, Prince Charles of Bavaria.

CHIEF ACTIONS: In Bohemia: (1) =Soor=, =Koniggrätz or Sadowa=; (2) Trautenau. _In the West_: (1) =Aschaffenburg=; (2) Langensala. _In Italy_: (2) Custozza, Lissa.

RESULTS: Closed with the peace of Prague, August 23, 1866, which authorized the re-establishment of the federated German states, excluding Austria; Austria ceded Venetia to Italy, and her rights in Schleswig-Holstein to Prussia. Hanover, Hesse, Nassau are also annexed to Prussia.

=FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR=--1870-1871.

(1) France vs. (2) =Prussia= supported by all German States.

CAUSES: Jealousy of France at Prussian gains and friction over Hohenzollern candidacy for the throne of Spain. Bismarck’s falsification of the “Ems dispatch” tricked France into a declaration of war.

LEADERS: Napoleon III., MacMahon, Bazaine; (2) =William I.=, =Moltke=, =Prince Frederick Charles=, =Crown Prince Frederic William.=

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Saarbrucken=; (2) Weissenberg, Wörth, Vionville, Gravelotte, Sedan, Capitulation of Metz, Orleans, Capitulation of Paris.

RESULTS: Closed in 1871 with the treaty of Versailles with the following results: (1) The French military power was destroyed; (2) the western frontier of Germany was rendered secure; (3) The German empire was established; (4) Germany acquired Alsace and Lorraine. In France Napoleon III. is deposed and the Third Republic established, 1870.

=RUSSO-TURKISH WAR=--1877-1878.

(1) =Russia= vs. (2) Turkey.

CAUSES: Turkish misgovernment and revolts in her Christian subject provinces, which were barbarously put down (“Bulgarian atrocities”) arouse all Europe but Russia alone declares war.

LEADERS: (1) =Grand Duke Nicholas=, =Gurka=, =Grand Duke Michael=, =Alexander II.=; (2) Suleiman Pasha, Osman Pasha, Mukhitar Pasha.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Passages of the Danube at Shitova=, =Shipka Pass=, =Plevna=, =Storm of Kars.=

RESULTS: By the peace of San Stefano as revised in the congress of the powers at Berlin, Montenegro, Servia and Roumania become independent; Bulgaria remains tributary but receives a Christian prince; Russia obtains large indemnity and part of Armenia and also Bessarabia.

=CHINESE-JAPANESE WAR=--1894-1895.

(1) =Japan= vs. (2) China.

CAUSES: Rival claims to suzerainty over Korea.

LEADERS: (1) =Ito=, =Yamagata=, =Oyama=, =Nogi=; (2) Tso, Yeh, Wei.

CHIEF ACTIONS: =Yalu River=, =Port Arthur=, =Wei-hai-wei=, =Niuchwang.=

RESULTS: Treaty of Shimonoseki, signed April 17, 1895, removed Korea from Chinese influence; ceded Formosa and the Pescadores to Japan, and awarded to the latter an indemnity of $180,000,000.

=SOUTH AFRICAN OR BOER WAR=--1899-1902.

(1) =Great Britain= vs. (2) Transvaal, Orange Free State.

CAUSES: Resistance by the Boers to the British form of government in the Transvaal.

LEADERS: (1) =Sir George White Buller=, =Methuen=, =Roberts=, =Kitchener=, =French=; (2) Cronje, Botha, De Wet, Delarey.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Siege of Ladysmith=, =Paardeberg=; (2) Colenso, Spion Kop, Vaal Krantz, Magersfontein.

RESULT: Boers surrendered May 31, 1902; are granted the right of self-government under British sovereignty, and united with other self-governing British colonies in South Africa, in 1910, to form the Union of South Africa.

=RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR=--1904-1905.

(1) =Japan= vs. (2) Russia.

CAUSES: Russian encroachments in Manchuria, and their fortification of Port Arthur.

LEADERS: (1) =Togo=, =Kuroki=, =Oku=, =Nodzu=, =Oyama=, =Nogi=; (2) Kuropatkin, Alexieff, Makaroff, Stoessel, Stakelberg, Linievitch.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Port Arthur and Chemulpo=, =Vladivostok=, =Yalu River=, =Dalny=, =Siege of Port Arthur=, =Mukden=, =Sea of Japan.=

RESULTS: Closed September 5, 1905, by treaty of Portsmouth by which Korea passes under control of Japan, China regains Manchuria, and Japan is granted important railroad rights.

=BALKAN WAR=--1912-1913.

(1) =Montenegro=, =Bulgaria=, =Servia and Greece= vs. (2) Turkey.

CAUSES: Discontent with Turkish rule in Macedonia.

LEADERS: (1) =Savoff=, =Dimitrieff=, =Putnik=, =Constantine=; (2) Nazim Pasha, Mukhtar Pasha, Abdullah Pasha.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Kirk Kilisseh=, =Lule Burgas=, =Monastir.=

RESULTS: Turkey appealed to the powers, November 3, 1912, for intervention, and an armistice was signed December 3, 1912, ending one of the shortest and most sanguinary wars in history. The treaty of peace was signed May 30, 1913.

(2) =Servia=, =Greece=, =Roumania=, =Turkey= vs. Bulgaria.

CAUSES: Disputes over the division of Macedonia.

CHIEF ACTIONS: Mainly astounding atrocities and the re-occupation of Adrianople by Turkey.