Part 170

CHIEF ACTION: (1) =Siege of Troy.=

RESULTS: Capture and destruction of Troy, or Ilium.

=FIRST MESSENIAN WAR.=--743-724 B. C.

(1) =Spartans= vs. (2) Messenians.

CAUSE: Spartans covet Messenian land.

LEADER: (2) Aristodemus.

CHIEF ACTION: (1) =Siege of Mount Ithome.=

RESULTS: Messenians become tributary of Sparta and their land is, in part, confiscated.

=SECOND MESSENIAN WAR.=--645-628 B. C.

(1) =Spartans= vs. (2) Messenians.

CAUSE: Spartan oppression causes Messenian revolt.

LEADERS: (1) =Tyrtaeus= (poet); (2) Aristomenes.

CHIEF ACTION: (1) =Eira.=

RESULTS: Greater part of Messenians flee to Sicily. Those remaining become helots (Spartan serfs).

=FIRST SACRED WAR.=--600-590 B. C.

(1) =Amphictyonic League= vs. (2) Crisæans.

CAUSE: People of the city of Crisa (port of Delphi) oppress pilgrims to the oracle.

LEADER: (1) =Cleisthenes of Sicyon.=

CHIEF ACTION: (1) =Siege of Crisa.=

RESULTS: For the first time Greek cities join in an effective league. Crisa destroyed.

=PERSIAN WARS.=--500-479 B. C.

(1) =Persians= vs. (2) Greeks.

CAUSE: Aid given by Athens and Eretria to revolting Ionic Greek cities, leading to burning of Sardis, 497 B. C.

a. First Persian Expedition--493 B. C.

LEADER: (1) =Mardonius.=

CHIEF ACTION: (1) =Three hundred ships lost by storm off Mt. Athos.=

RESULTS: Partial success against Macedonians and Thracians. Continued plans of Darius for subjugating Greece.

b. Second Persian Expedition--490 B. C.

LEADERS: =Datis,= (1) =Artaphernes;= (2) Miltiades.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Naxos=, =Eretria=; (2) Marathon (490 B. C.)

RESULTS: The Athenians are victorious and the Persians retreat to Asia Minor.

c. Third Persian Expedition--481-480 B. C.

Xerxes desires to avenge his father’s defeat.

LEADERS: (1) =Xerxes=; (2) Leonidas, Eurybiades, Themistocles.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Thermopylæ=, _Salamis_, =Artemisium=, =Athens burned.=

RESULTS: Xerxes retreats to Persia after his defeat at Salamis.

d. Fourth Persian Expedition--479 B. C.

War continued by troops which Xerxes left behind.

LEADERS: (1) =Mardonius=; (2) Pausanias, Aristides.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) Athens laid waste; (2) =Platæa=, =Mycale.=

RESULTS: All Persian invasions and attempts to subjugate Greece cease.

=THIRD MESSENIAN WAR.=--464-456 B. C.

(1) =Helots of Messenian descent= vs. (2) Spartans.

CAUSE: Confusion following earthquake gives Helots courage to revolt.

CHIEF ACTION: (2) Mt. Ithome besieged. Sparta sent home her Athenian allies.

RESULTS: Messenians capitulate and are allowed to leave the Peloponnesus never to return. Athens retaliates by settling them at Naupactus.

=PELOPONNESIAN WAR.=--431-404 B. C.

(1) =Sparta and Allies= vs. (2) Athens and Allies.

a. First Period--431-421 B. C.

CAUSE: Envy of Sparta and her allies at Athens’ growing power and influence. Discontent among some of the Athenian subject states.

LEADERS: (1) =Archidamus=, =Agis=, =Brasidas=; (2) Demosthenes, Cleon, Nicias.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Invasion of Attica=, =Plague in Attica=, =Siege of Platæa=, =Delium=, =Amphipolis.= (2) Mitylene, Sphacteria.

RESULTS: By the peace of Nicias (421 B. C.) both sides are to restore conquests and prisoners but terms are imperfectly carried out.

b. Second Period or Decelean War--413-404 B. C.

CAUSE: Sparta takes advantage of Athens’ weakness, resulting from the failure of the expedition to Syracuse, to renew the war.

LEADERS: Alcibiades serves Athens, Sparta and Athens in turn. (1) =Lysander=; (2) Conon.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Decelea occupied.= =Attica ravaged.= =Many subject states of Athens revolt.= =Notium, Ægospotami, Surrender of Athens=; (2) Abydos, Cyzicus, Arginusæ.

=Results=: The Spartans tear down the walls of Piræus and Athens. Athens loses her foreign possessions and fleet but becomes an independent ally of Sparta. Sparta is now supreme in Greece.

=GAULS’ INVASION OF ITALY.=--390 B. C.

(1) =Gauls= vs. (2) Romans.

CAUSE: Roman people refuse to surrender Roman ambassadors who had aided the Etruscans against the Gauls.

LEADERS: (2) M. Manlius, Capitolinus, Camillus.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Battle of the Allia.= =Sack of Rome.=

RESULTS: Gauls retire on payment of ransom. The overthrow of Rome had no permanent effect on her fortunes.

=SECOND SACRED WAR.=--c. 355-346 B. C.

(1) =Phocians= vs. (2) Amphictyons.

CAUSE: Phocians seize and plunder Delphi because of fine imposed by Amphictyonic Council.

LEADERS: (1) =Onomarchus=; (2) Philip of Macedon.

RESULTS: Thebans and Thessalians invite aid of Philip against Phocians and he takes their place in the Amphictyonic Council.

=THIRD SACRED WAR.=--339-338 B. C.

(1) =Macedonians= vs. (2) Athenians, Thebans.

CAUSE: Amphictyons call in Philip to punish Amphissa, whereupon he seizes Elatea, thereby threatening Athens. Athenians aroused by Demosthenes.

LEADERS: (1) =Philip of Macedon.=

CHIEF ACTIONS: =Chæronea.=

RESULTS: Philip gains leadership of Greece. Henceforth Greece is under the control of Macedonia.

=SAMNITE WARS.=--343-290 B. C.

(1) =Romans= vs. (2) Samnites.

a. First Samnite War--343-341 B. C.

CAUSE: A duel between two rival races for supremacy in Italy. Campanians implore aid of Romans against Samnites who are laying waste their territories in revenge for aid given the Sidicini of Teanum.

LEADERS: (1) =Marcus Valerius Corvus=, =P. Decius Mus.=

RESULTS: Capua is retained by the Romans and Teanum surrendered to Samnites.

b. Second or Great Samnite War--326-304 B. C.

CAUSE: The occupation of Palaeopolis by the Samnites. In 311 B. C. the Etruscan cities joined in the war against Rome.

LEADERS: (1) =Papirius Cursor=; (2) Fabius Rullianus Gavius Pontius.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Fregellæ=, =Sutrium=, =Lake Vadimonis=, =Bovianum=; (2) Caudine Forks.

RESULTS: Samnites sue for peace. They resign all their conquests but retain their independence within their native mountains.

c. Third Samnite War--298-290 B. C.

CAUSE: While Romans are engaged with the Gauls the Samnites enter Lucania and refuse to withdraw.

LEADERS: (1) =Q. Fabius Rullianus=, =P. Decius Mus= (=son=); (2) Gellius Egnatius, Gavius Pontius.

CHIEF ACTION: (1) =Sentinum.=

RESULT: Samnites defeated but not crushed.

=WARS OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT IN ASIA=--334-328 B. C.

(1) =Greeks= vs. (2) Persians, Egyptians, Bactrians, Indians (Hindus).

CAUSE: A war of conquest, a scientific expedition and a journey of discovery.

LEADERS: (1) =Alexander the Great=, =Nearchus=; (2) Darius III., Memnon.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Granicus=, =Issus=, =Siege of Tyre=, =Arbela.=

RESULTS: Alexander conquers Asia from the Mediterranean Sea to the Indus River and from the Arabian Sea to the Jaxartes River and begins the Hellenizing of the East. Founds Alexandria in Egypt. The empire breaks up after Alexander’s death 323 B. C.

=ROMAN WAR WITH TARENTUM AND EPIRUS.=--282-272 B. C.

(1) =Romans= vs. (2) Tarentum and King Pyrrhus.

CAUSE: The people of Tarentum capture Roman ships and insult Roman embassy. They call in King Pyrrhus of Epirus.

LEADERS: (1) =Manius Curius=; (2) Pyrrhus.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Beneventum=, =Tarentum=; (2) Heraclea, Asculum.

RESULTS: Pyrrhus returns to Epirus and his allies one by one submit to Rome, which is left supreme from Straits of Messina to the River Arno and the headland of Ancona.

=FIRST PUNIC WAR.=--264-241 B. C.

(1) =Romans= vs. (2) Carthaginians.

CAUSES: A struggle for supremacy in Sicily. Pretext, Campanian mercenaries, having seized Messina, appeal to Rome for aid.

LEADERS: (1) =C. Duilius=, =M. Atilius Regulus=, =P. Claudius Pulcher=, =C. Lutatius Catulus=; (2) Hamilcar Barca, Himilco, Hanno.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Agrigentum=, =Mylæ=, =Ecnomus=, =Panormus=, =Ægadian Islands=; (2) Siege of Lilybæum, Drepana.

RESULTS: Carthaginians surrender Sicily and pay a war indemnity. Carthage retains the Western Mediterranean and Rome is launched on her career of conquest.

=SECOND PUNIC WAR.=--218-201 B. C.

(1) =Romans= vs. (2) Carthaginians.

CAUSES: A duel to the death between East and West. Pretext, Hannibal’s attacks on Saguntum in Spain.

LEADERS: (1) =Q. Fabius Maximus=, =Publius Scipio=, =P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus=; (2) Hannibal, Hasdrubal.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Syracuse=, =Capua=, =Metaurus=, =Zama=; (2) Ticinus, Trebia, Trasimene, Cannæ.

RESULTS: Hannibal succumbs as a result of the loyalty of Italy. Carthage forced to give up Spain, to pay an annual tribute, to surrender her fleet, and to agree not to go to war without the permission of Rome.

=FOUR MACEDONIAN WARS.=--214-146 B. C.

(1) =Romans= vs. (2) Greeks.

CAUSE: Alliance of Philip, King of Macedon with Carthage.

LEADERS: (1) =T. Quinctius Flaminius=, =L. Aemilius Paulus=; (2) Philip of Macedon, Perseus.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Cynoscephalæ=, =Pydna.=

RESULT: Macedonia becomes a Roman province.

=THIRD PUNIC WAR=--149-146 B. C.

(1) =Romans= vs. (2) Carthaginians.

CAUSE: War of Carthage with Massinissa gives Rome the pretext for completing the destruction of Carthage.

LEADERS: (1) =Scipio=, =Æmilianus=, =Africanus=.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Siege of Carthage=.

RESULT: Carthage destroyed. Most of her territory becomes a Roman province of Africa.

=JUGURTHINE WAR.=--111-105 B. C.

(1) =Romans= vs. (2) Jugurtha of Numidia.

CAUSE: Jugurtha, disregarding intervention of Rome, captures Citra and massacres male population.

LEADERS: (1) =C. Marius=; (2) Jugurtha.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Muthul=, =Citra=.

RESULTS: Numidia divided. The war reveals the corruption and incapacity of the Senatorial government of Rome.

=MARSIAN OR SOCIAL WAR.=--90-88 B. C.

(1) =Romans= vs. (2) Italian Allies.

CAUSE: Italian socii (allies) are denied the right of Roman citizenship.

LEADER: (1) =C. Marius=, =Sulla=.

CHIEF ACTION: (1) =Asculum=.

RESULT: Italians form a Federal republic, Italia, with capital at Corfinium. Roman citizenship granted to all Italian residents.

=FIRST ROMAN CIVIL WAR=--88-82 B. C.

(1) =Optimates= vs. (2) Democrats.

CAUSE: Reform measures of Sulpicius are carried by means of violence. Command of army of Asia is transferred from Sulla to Marius.

LEADERS: (1) =Sulla=, =Pompey=; (2) Marius, Cinna, Sertorius, Carbo.

CHIEF ACTIONS: =Sacriportis=, =Colline=, =Gate=, =Sulla’s proscriptions=; (2) Marius’s Reign of Terror.

RESULT: Sulla is appointed dictator.

=THREE MITHRIDATIC WARS=--88-63 B. C.

(1) =Romans= vs. (2) Pontines and Armenians.

CAUSES: Ambition of Mithridates VI. and Roman interference.

LEADERS: (1) =Sulla=, =Lucullus=, =Pompey=; (2) Mithridates (Pontus), Tigranus (Armenia).

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Chæronea=, =Orchomenus=, =Cabira=, =Tigranocerta=; (2) Massacre of Italians in Asia.

RESULTS: Reorganization of the East; Pontus, Syria and Cilicia become Roman provinces.

=GLADIATORIAL AND THIRD SERVILE WAR.=--73-71 B. C.

(1) =Romans= vs. Revolted Gladiators and Slaves.

CAUSE: Uprising of a band of gladiators, escaped from Capua and joined by many slaves of southern Italy.

LEADERS: (1) =Crassus=, =Pompey=; (2) Spartacus.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Silarus=; (2) Mt. Vesuvius.

RESULTS: Revolt put down with cruelty, six thousand crucified.

=GALLIC WAR=--58-51 B. C.

(1) =Romans= vs. (2) Tribes of Gaul.

CAUSE: Desire to extend the Roman empire.

LEADERS: (1) =Julius Cæsar=; (2) Vercingetorix, Ariovistus.

CHIEF ACTION: (1) =Siege of Alesia.=

RESULTS: Conquest and organization of Gaul by Cæsar. Gauls Romanized; boundaries of the old world enlarged (Cæsar’s expedition to Britain 55-54 B. C.); means acquired for changing Rome into a monarchy.

=SECOND ROMAN CIVIL WAR.=--49-31 B. C.

First period, 49-45 B. C.

(1) =Followers of Cæsar= (=democrats=) vs. (2) Followers of Pompey (republican aristocrats).

CAUSE: Struggle for mastery between Cæsar, conqueror of Gaul, and Pompey, conqueror of the East.

LEADERS: (1) =Cæsar=; (2) Pompey and his sons.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) “=Crossing the Rubicon=,” =Pharsalus=, =Thapsus=, =Munda.=

RESULT: Cæsar is appointed dictator for life. He is the founder of the new monarchy at Rome.

Second period--43-42 B. C.

(1) =Friends of Cæsar= (=Second Triumvirate=) vs. (2) Cæsar’s Assassins.

CAUSE: Assassination of Cæsar, 44 B. C.

LEADERS: (1) =Antony=, =Octavius=, =Lepidus=; (2) Brutus, Cassius, Sextus Pompey.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =New proscription= (=Murder of Cicero=), =Philippi=.

RESULT: Brutus and Cassius, defeated, commit suicide.

Third period--31-30 B. C.

(1) =Octavius= vs. (2) Antony.

CAUSE: A continued struggle for supreme power.

LEADERS: (1) =Octavius=; (2) Antony, Cleopatra.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Actium.=

RESULTS: Triumph of Octavius, grand nephew of Julius Cæsar. End of the republic and beginning of the empire.

=JEWISH WAR=--A. D. 66-70.

(1) =Romans= vs. (2) Jews.

CAUSE: Revolt of the Jews against Rome.

LEADER: (1) =Titus, son of Emperor Vespasian.=

CHIEF ACTION: (1) =Siege of Jerusalem.=

RESULT: Destruction of Jerusalem and the temple.

=DACIAN WARS.=--86-90, 101-102, 105-107.

(1) =Romans= vs. (2) Dacians.

CAUSE: Rome desires to extend her conquests.

LEADERS: (1) =Domitian=, =Trajan=; (2) Decebalus.

RESULTS: Dacia is made a Roman province. Roman conquest and empire reaches its highest point.

=CIVIL WARS OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE.=--193-284.

CAUSES: Contests for the throne among rival generals (barrack emperors).

RESULT: Reorganization of empire by Diocletian (284-305).

=WARS OF CONSTANTINE THE GREAT FOR THE EMPIRE.=--310-323.

(1) =Constantine= vs. (2) Others, Augusti.

CAUSES: Confusion following abdication of Diocletian.

LEADERS: (1) =Constantine=; (2) Maxentius, Maximinus, Licinius.

CHIEF ACTION: (1) =Turin.=

RESULTS: Constantine becomes sole ruler of Roman empire. He redistricts the empire, moves the capital to Constantinople and recognizes Christianity.

=INVASION OF ROMAN EMPIRE BY NORTHERN BARBARIANS=--375-493.

(1) =Romans= vs. (2) Teutons and (Huns), Teutonic Tribes; Visigoths, Vandals, Suevi, Franks, Burgundians, Ostrogoths, Alemanni, Jutes, Saxons, Angles, Lombards.

CAUSES: The Huns (Mongolians) press upon the Teutons, who are forced to seek new lands within the boundaries of the Roman empire.

LEADERS: (1) =Valens=, =Stilicho Ætius=, =Leo= (=bishop of Rome=); (2) Alaric; Walja (Visigoth); Genseric (Vandal); Hengist and Horsa (Saxons); Attila (Hun); Theodoric the Great (Ostrogoth).

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Battle near Chalons= (=451=); (2) Adrianople, Sack of Rome.

RESULTS: Visigothic kingdom of Tolosa (Toulouse) (415-507). Vandals settle in Africa (429-534). Carthage (439).

Burgundians occupy Rhone Valley (443).

Angles, Saxons and Jutes invade England (449), Huns and Ostrogoths ravage Gaul.

Huns destroy Aquileia and Venice founded (452).

Vandals plunder Rome (455).

Odoacer gains ascendency in Rome. The fall of the Roman empire (476).

Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy (493-555).

Overthrow of the Roman empire in the West, though it continued in the East until 1453. This blending of Roman and Teutonic elements under the influence of the Christian religion and what remained of classic civilization formed the civilization of the middle ages.

=WARS OF JUSTINIAN=--533-534.

(1) =Eastern Empire= vs. (2) Vandals in Africa and (3) Ostrogoths in Italy--535-555.

CAUSE: Desire to restore West to Eastern empire.

LEADERS: (1) =Belisarius=, =Narses=; (3) Vitiges Totila.

CHIEF ACTION: (1) =Battle of Taginae= (=552=).

RESULTS: Destruction of Vandal power in Africa and of the Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy. Exarchate established at Ravenna.

=WARS OF THE FRANKS=--486-814.

(1) =Franks= vs. (2) Neighboring Peoples.

CAUSES: Desire to extend the limits of Frankish territory and to ward off attacks from without.

LEADERS: (1) =Clovis= (=486-511=), =Charles Martel= (=814-741=), =Pepin the Short= (=751-768=), =Charlemagne= (=768-814=).

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Soissons= (=486=), =Clovis conquers Alemanni and becomes a Catholic Christian= (=496=), =Battle of Tours= (=732=), =Conquest of Burgundy= (=534=), =Charlemagne conquers Lombards= (=774-776=), =Saxons= (=772-804=), =Bavarians= (=788=), =Avars= (=791=), =Northern Spain= (=778=).

RESULTS: Franks become leading power in the West and revive the Western Empire. (Christmas day, 800).

=HEPTARCHIC WARS IN ENGLAND=--588-828.

CAUSES: Struggle for supremacy among the seven Teutonic kingdoms.

LEADERS: Ethelbert (Kent), Edwin (Northumbria), Offa (Mercia), Egbert (Wessex).

CHIEF EVENTS: The supremacy was successively held by kings of Kent, Northumbria, Mercia, and Wessex, Maserfield (642), Ellandun (825).

RESULT: All England at last united under Egbert, king of Wessex (802-837).

=SARACEN OR MOHAMMEDAN WARS=--632-1492.

CAUSE: Saracens are ambitious to found a world wide Mohammedan empire.

LEADERS: (1) =Omar=, =Amru=, =Hassan=, =Mousa=, =Tarik=, =Abderrahman=, =Mohammed II.=, =Abdallah=; (2) Yezdegerd (Persia), Leo the Isaurian, Charles Martel, Constantine, Palæologus, Ferdinand of Aragon.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Yarmouk= (=Syria=), =Damascus Jerusalem Cadesia= (=Persia=), =Alexandria=, =Carthage= (=697=), =Xeres= (=Spain=), =Granada=, =Toledo=; (2) Constantinople (716), Tours, Jerusalem, Las Navas de Tolosa (1212).

(1) =Constantinople= (1453).

(2) Granada (1492).

RESULTS: The Saracens attempted to conquer and convert Europe at three different times between 710 and 1492. Their power began to wane from the latter date.

=NORTHMEN INVASIONS=--Ninth and Tenth Centuries.

(1) =Northmen= vs. (2) People of Western and Southern Europe.

CAUSES: Opportunity for plunder and conquest and later the driving out of adventurous spirits by the organization of settled kingdoms in the north.

LEADERS: (1) =Hastings=, =Rolf=, =Sweyn=, =Canute=; (2) Alfred (England), Odo (France).

CHIEF EVENTS: In England--Treaty of Wedmore, Massacre of Danes (1002).

In France: Siege of Paris. Grant of Normandy to Rolf (977).

RESULTS: The Northmen are the last swarm of Teutonic conquerors. They readily assimilate civilization and infuse new energy into western Europe.

=NORMAN CONQUEST=--1066.

(1) =Normans= vs. (2) English.

CAUSE: William, duke of Normandy wishes to increase his territory and his power.

LEADERS: (1) =William the Conqueror=; (2) Harold, king of England.

CHIEF ACTION: (1) =Hastings.=

RESULTS: The king received added power and a modified feudalism introduced into England. Southern Italy and Sicily were also conquered by bands of Normans in the eleventh century and the kingdom of Naples founded.

=CRUSADES=--1096-1270.

(1) =European Christians= vs. (2) Turks and Moslems.

First Crusade--1096-1099.

CAUSES: The appeal of the eastern emperor for aid, the desire to recover the Holy Sepulcher from the infidels, the love of adventure, and hope of gain.

LEADERS: (1) =Peter the Hermit=, =Godfrey of Bouillon=, =Bohemond of Tarentum=, =Robert of Normandy.=

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Nicæa=, =Antioch=, =Jerusalem.=

RESULTS: Jerusalem is subdued and a transient kingdom is founded at Jerusalem.

Second Crusade--1147-1149.

CAUSE: The conquest of Edessa by the Moslems threatens Jerusalem. Preaching of Saint Bernard.

LEADERS: (1) =Conrad III. of Germany=, =Louis VII. of France.=

CHIEF ACTION: Unsuccessful attack on Damascus.

RESULTS: Armies almost annihilated by hunger, disease and the enemy.

Third Crusade--1189-1192.

CAUSE: Capture of Jerusalem by Saladin.

LEADERS: =Richard I. of England=, =Philip Augustus of France=, =Frederick Barbarossa of Germany=; (2) Saladin.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Acre.=

RESULTS: The Latin Christians secure by treaty the privilege of visiting the tomb of Christ for three years without molestation.

Fourth Crusade--1201-1204.

(1) =Crusaders= vs. (2) Eastern Empire.

CAUSES: Appeals of Innocent III. Through influence of the Venetians the Crusaders turn aside to attack Constantinople.

LEADERS: (1) =Dandolo, Doge of Venice=, =Baldwin of Flanders.=

CHIEF ACTION: (1) Sack of Constantinople.

RESULTS: Division of eastern empire. The Venetians get the monopoly of trade and most of the islands and coast lands of the Ægean and Ionian seas. The remainder is erected into a feudal state, the Latin empire.

Children’s Crusade (legendary)--1212.

CAUSES: Ignorant enthusiasm aroused by visions and miraculous tales.

LEADER: A shepherd lad, Stephen of Vendome.

CHIEF EVENTS: Thousands of children, women and peasants march from France and Germany to the Mediterranean.

RESULTS: Only a small number return home; the others perish on the way or are sold into slavery by French merchants.

Fifth Crusade--1228-1229.

CAUSE: Vow of Frederick II. of Germany. He goes under pope’s excommunication.

LEADER: (1) =Frederick II.=

RESULTS: Frederick, by treaty with the sultan, secures a truce for ten years and the restoration of Bethlehem, Nazareth and Jerusalem to the Christians; Jerusalem is finally lost in 1244.

Sixth Crusade--1248-1254.

CAUSE: Louis IX. of France starts on a crusade via Egypt.

LEADERS: (1) =Louis IX.=, later =St. Louis=.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Damietta=; (2) Expedition to Cairo.

RESULT: Louis is captured in battle and released on payment of heavy ransom and evacuation of Damietta.

Last, Seventh Crusade--1270-1291.

CAUSES: Louis IX. goes against Mohammedans of Tunis, Prince Edward of England to Syria.

LEADER: (1) =Louis IX.=, =Prince Edward=.

CHIEF EVENTS: Death of Louis by the plague; (2) Acre, last Christian stronghold in Syria, falls (1291).

RESULTS: The results of the crusades were development of commerce, introduction of new customs, products and manufactures, increase in freedom of lower classes, especially townsmen, and the power of the crown.

=WAR OF THE EMPIRE=--1158-1183.

(1) =Empire= vs. (2) Italian Communes.

CAUSE: Frederick Barbarossa’s attempt to restore imperial rights over the cities of northern Italy.

LEADERS: (1) =Frederick I. Barbarossa=; (2) Pope Alexander III.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Milan= (1162); (2) Legnano (1176).

RESULTS: By treaty of Constance (1183) the cities of Lombardy are recognized as practically self-governing republics, the barest overlordship remaining to the emperor.

=WARS OF THE BARONS IN ENGLAND=--1215-1265.

(1) =Barons= vs. (2) Kings John and Henry III.

CAUSES: Misgovernment of John and Henry III.

LEADERS: (1) =Stephen Langton=, =Simon de Montfort=;

(2) King John, Prince Edward, later Edward I.

CHIEF EVENTS: (1) =Signing of Magna Charta=, =Lewes=, =Simon de Montfort’s Parliament=; (2) Evesham.

RESULTS: The beginning of constitutional monarchy--henceforth the king is below the law, not above it.

=HUNDRED YEARS’ WAR=--1337-1453.

(1) =English= vs. (2) French.

CAUSES: The conflict of interests of the French and English kings in Guienne, Flanders and Scotland. Edward III. advances claim by descent to the throne of France.

LEADERS: (1) =Edward III.=, =Edward the Black Prince=, =Prince Henry V., Duke of Bedford=; (2) Du Guesclin, Charles V., Joan of Arc.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Crécy=, =Calais=, =Poitiers=, =Peace of Bretigny=, =Agincourt=, =Treaty of Troyes=; (2) Orleans (1429), Castillon (1453).

RESULTS: England loses all her land in France except Calais. During the earlier stage of this war about one-third of the population of western Europe perished from the Black Death.

=AUSTRO-SWISS WAR=--1315-1388.

(1) =House of Hapsburg= vs. (2) Swiss Confederation.

CAUSES: Hapsburgs assert feudal rights over the peasants of the Swiss cantons.

LEADERS: (1) =Leopold III. of Austria=; (2) Arnold von Winkelried.

CHIEF ACTIONS: (2) Morgarten, Sempach, Näfels.

RESULT: Independence of Swiss secured.

=HUSSITE WAR=--1419-1436.

(1) =Bohemian Followers of John Huss= vs. (2) Catholic Europe.

CAUSES: Execution of John Huss, the Bohemian religious reformer, by the council of Constance.