Part 165

=Production and Industry.=--The vegetation of Mexico has the same wide range as the climate. In the lowlands dye woods and valuable timbers abound in the virgin forests, as well as medicinal plants, india rubber, palms, etc.; and oranges and bananas, many varieties of cactus, agave, sisal, olives, sugar, coffee, cocoa, rice, indigo, cotton and tobacco, besides the omnipresent maize, all thrive. The vine flourishes in some districts, especially near El Paso, Durango, and Parras, in Coahuila, where a good wine is made; and mulberry plants have been imported from Europe to develop the silk industry. In Lower California a good deal of archil is collected, and chicle gum is extracted and prepared in the forests along the coast.

Agriculture in Mexico is steadily developing. Silver mining has been an important industry ever since the conquest. Gold is also produced. Copper is largely mined in some sections, being found in a pure state in Chiapas and Guanajuato, and elsewhere associated with gold. Other important minerals are iron, including enormous masses of meteoric iron ore, and the mountain a mile from Durango, the Cerro de Mercado, a solid mass of magnetic iron ore; lead, found associated with silver; and sulpher, zinc, quicksilver, platinum, cinnabar, asphalt and petroleum, besides salt, marble, alabaster, gypsum, and rock salt in great quantities. There are also said to be large deposits of coal, some of excellent quality.

Mexico is the original home of the “cattle range” business, and there vast herds of horses, cattle, and sheep form the principal wealth of the people.

Woolen and cotton spinning and weaving, and other branches of industry are encouraged by high protective duties.

=People.=--The population of Mexico consists mainly of the indigenous Indian race, and of the dominant Spaniards or their descendants. Spaniards born in Europe are now very few in number, but the government of the country is in the hands of the “Creoles,” or people of Spanish descent born in Mexico. They number about twenty per cent, mixed Hispano-Americans, or mestizos, forty-three per cent, and full blood Indians thirty-five per cent of the whole population. The mestizos are the farmers and rancheros, the muleteers and servants. Whites and mestizos speak Spanish.

The Roman Catholic is the religion of the country, but all beliefs are tolerated, and education, now free and compulsory, is making steady progress.

=Government.=--The Mexican constitution is closely modeled upon that of the United States. The president, who is assisted by secretaries of state, is elected for four years, and can be re-elected for a second term. The legislative power is vested in a Congress, consisting of a Senate of fifty-six members, and a Chamber of Deputies of two hundred and thirty-three members. The judicial system occupies the same position as that of the United States; and the several states have elective governors and legislatures.

Owing to revolutionary conditions the civil government was practically suspended in September, 1914. (See under History of Mexico.)

=Cities.=--The principal cities are Mexico City, the capital, population 470,000. Puébla, east of the capital, among the mountains, is the second town and the most industrious place in Mexico. Guadalajara, northwest, is also a city of magnificent palaces and churches. Vera Cruz, founded by Cortez, is the only port on the Atlantic. On the Pacific side the chief seaports are Mazatlan and Acapulco, with a fine harbor. Other important towns are Oaxaca, Puebla, and Durango.

The railway system joins that of the United States at El Paso on the Rio Grande.

=Mexico City= is situated seven thousand four hundred and ten feet above the sea at the lowest level of the great basin (fourteen hundred square miles) of the Anahuac plateau.

All the main streets converge on the Plaza Mayor, where the site of the old teocalli is occupied by the no less famous Cathedral. The walls of this imposing building, forming a cross four hundred and twenty-six by two hundred and three feet, alone cost nearly two million dollars, and the interior with its twenty chapels and elaborate ornamentation, much more. Built into the foot of one of the two open towers (two hundred and eighteen feet) is the famous “Aztec” (Toltec) calendar stone.

Facing the cathedral is the Municipal Palace, and on the sides of the plaza are the National Palace (the old vice-regal residence), the national Monte de Piedad, the postoffice, and the national museum.

Other noteworthy buildings are the national picture gallery and library (two hundred and fifty thousand volumes), the national observatory, the school of mines, the mint, the Iturbide hotel, and the former palace of the Inquisition, now a medical college; and, mostly in secularized ecclesiastical edifices, there are also schools of law and engineering, a conservatory of music, and an academy of fine arts.

Among the monuments of the city are the noble Columbus monument, the statue of Cuauhtemotzin, the last of the Aztec emperors, and that of the engineer Martinez.

The principal streets are broad, clean, and well paved and lighted, with houses of stone gaily painted in bright colors. In addition to the alameda, with its stately beaches, Mexico is remarkable for the extent and beauty of its paseos, or raised paved roads, planted with double rows of trees, which diverge far into the country from every quarter; and there are still on Lakes Chalco and Xochimilco, where a line of steamers runs, a few of the floating gardens for which the ancient city was so celebrated.

Attempts had long been made to drain the valley of Mexico. The federal government finally undertook the work, and operations begun in 1890 were completed in 1898 at a cost of about sixteen million dollars. Extensive drainage and sanitation works have since been carried out at a cost of five million seven hundred and fourteen thousand nine hundred and eighty-two dollars.

In 1905 a sumptuous legislative palace, a national Pantheon for the ashes of the great men of Mexico, and a monument to perpetuate the heroes of the independence were under construction, at a cost of thirty million dollars.

The trade of Mexico is chiefly a transit trade, but it has now extensive cotton and linen factories, paper mills, tobacco and cigars, gold and silver work, pottery, silverware, cork, bricks, and soap--many of them due to foreign enterprise.

=History of Mexico.=--The history of ancient Mexico exhibits two distinct and widely differing periods--that of the Toltecs and that of the Aztecs. Both were Nahua nations, speaking a language which survives in Mexico to this day.

The eighth century is the traditional date when the Toltecs are related to have come from the north, from some undefined locality, bringing to Anahuac, or Mexico, its oldest and its highest native civilization, about 1325. A hundred years later, under the reign of Montezuma II., they had attained a suzerainty over all the tribes from the Atlantic to the Pacific.

On the coming of the Spaniards under Cortez in 1519, Aztec rule was finally overthrown, chiefly by means of the assistance the Spaniards received from those peoples whom the Aztecs had held in cruel bondage.

In 1540 Mexico was united with other American territories--at one time all the country from Panama to Vancouver’s Island--under the name of New Spain, and governed by viceroys (fifty-seven in all) appointed by the mother country, Spain. For nearly three centuries it may be said to have lain in sullen submission beneath its cruel conqueror’s heel, till in 1810 the discontent, which had been gaining ground against the vice-regal power during the war of Spain with Napoleon, broke into open rebellion under the leadership of a country priest named Hidalgo.

In 1822 General Iturbide had himself proclaimed emperor; but the guerilla leader Guerrero, his former ally, and General Santa Anna raised the republican standard, and in 1823 he was banished to Italy with a pension. Returning the following year he was taken and shot, and the federal republic of Mexico was finally established.

For more than half a century after this (till 1876) the history of Mexico is a record of chronic disorder and civil war. In 1836 Texas secured its independence, for which it had struggled for several years, and which Mexico was compelled to recognize in 1845. In that year Texas was incorporated with the United States, and after the Mexican war of 1848 Mexico ceded half a million square miles to the United States.

The Emperor Napoleon III. declared war against the president, Juarez, in 1862; the Austrian Emperor of Mexico, Maximilian, imposed by the French, was executed in 1867, and the republic re-established. Diaz was re-elected president for the eighth time in 1910, but, being too autocratic, had to resign under pressure of revolution in 1911. In the ensuing welter of revolts and conspiracies President Madero was set aside and killed, and the United States applied pressure to eliminate President Huerta. From this time on the relations of the United States with Mexico became more strained. During 1915-1916, following repeated attacks made by bands of Mexican bandits upon American border towns and assaults by Mexicans upon Americans and other foreigners in Mexico, the relations between the two countries approached a crisis. Early in 1916 nineteen men, nearly all of them Americans, were taken from a train near Chihuahua and killed by a band of bandits.

Conditions became still more tense when, on March 9, several hundred bandits led by Villa raided and burned the town of Columbus, N. M., killing nine American civilians and eight United States soldiers. On March 10 President Wilson ordered five thousand United States troops into Mexico to catch Villa, and two days later the first troops crossed the border. On March 16 the first clash occurred between Villa outposts and the American expeditionary force. On June 18 the war department ordered all the state militia mobilized, and within the next two weeks fifty thousand of the state soldiers had been rushed to the border.

President Wilson later in the year named an American commission at the suggestion of General Carranza, which, jointly with a Mexican commission, began its sessions at New London, Conn. The sessions continued until November 24, when a protocol was signed providing for the withdrawal of the United States troops from Mexico in forty days, conditioned upon the Carranza Government showing within that time that it could protect the border and prevent raids by bandits upon American territory.

Two days before the signing of this protocol Villa, at the head of a strong force, attacked Chihuahua City, and after a battle lasting several days captured the city.

Carranza forces regained control of Chihuahua City December 3, and Villa’s forces fled to the mountains west of the city, where they were later reported to be gathering new recruits in preparation for more extensive operations.

The year 1917 was ushered in with the struggle between the Carranza and Villa factions still in progress.

LEADING COUNTRIES OF SOUTH AMERICA

=ARGENTINA=, or =ARGENTINE REPUBLIC=, takes its name from the river La Plata (“River of Silver”). After Brazil, it is the largest state of South America. Its territory reaches from the Pilcomayo River, on the borders of Bolivia, southward for two thousand four hundred miles to Staten Island, off the southeastern extremity of Tierra del Fuego; and from the slope of the Andes on the west to the Uruguay River and the Atlantic in the east.

=Physical Features.=--Excepting on the northwest, where the spurs of the Andes reach down into the state, the surface of Argentina presents vast monotonous and level plains, broken only by the detached ridges of Córdova and San Luis, in the western interior. In the north the portion of the region called the Gran Chaco, within the frontier, is partly forest covered, but all the central and southern region presents only vast treeless plains or “pampas,” covered at most seasons with coarse grass, which is green in the winter months, but which dries up in summer so as to give an aspect of aridity to the plains. Some portions of the interior, called “Salinas,” are barren and white throughout the year.

=Rivers.=--The great watercourse of the country is the Paraná, formed by the union of the Upper Paraná and Paraguay rivers near the northeastern corner of the state. This is a noble river, in all parts of its course through Argentine territory scarcely ever less than a mile in width, and in some places spreading out in lateral channels, or “riachos,” to a breadth of ten miles.

The Pilcomayo, which forms part of the northern boundary, has now been explored throughout its length, and is navigable at high water; the Vermejo, the next river southward, has of late years become a regularly navigated highway from the Paraguay up to the northeastern provinces; the Salado, farther south, flowing directly to the Paraná, is also an important river; but the remaining streams which tend eastward to the Paraná have not strength of water sufficient to resist evaporation in crossing the dry plains, and terminate for the most part in marshes and salt lakes.

=Climate.=--The climate in the extreme north is very hot, for it lies north of the tropic of Capricorn. The more remote southern territories have an extremely disagreeable climate, but are not really so cold as might be expected from their relatively high latitude. But the country in general enjoys an equable, temperate, and healthful climate. Stormy southwest winds, called “pamperos,” sweep over the plains at times, and raise great clouds of dust, which fly across the plains.

=Production and Industry.=--The principal productions are wheat, maize, oats, linseed, sugar, wool, hides, cattle, sheep, and horses.

The great wealth of the state, however, lies in its countless herds of cattle and horses and flocks of sheep, which are pastured on the “pampas,” and which multiply there very rapidly. The rearing and tending of these herds is the great and characteristic industry of the country; these also yield enormous quantities of hides, horns, and salted beef.

The northwestern provinces of the Argentine Republic, crossed by the lower ramifications of the Andes, are rich in metals, including gold, silver, nickel, copper, tin, lead, and iron, as well as in several kinds of marble, jasper, and precious stones. On the Rio Vermejo petroleum wells have recently been discovered.

The export of frozen beef and mutton is an important industry. The exports are made up entirely of pastoral and agricultural products, with the exception of quebracho, copper, manganese, and wolfram.

=People.=--The people of the country are mostly Spanish in their language and descent, although there are many Italians, French, Americans, Swiss, and Germans. The Gauchos, or herdsmen of the plains, are a hardy and spirited, but ignorant race, often of partial Indian descent. Some of the Indians of the remote districts have become skilled in the rearing of flocks and herds.

The religion is Roman Catholic. The government is closely modeled upon that of the United States.

EDUCATION.--Primary education is secular, free and nominally compulsory from the ages of six to fourteen. Schools are maintained by provincial taxation, and controlled by provincial boards (except in the capital, where there is a National Council), with grants from the Federal Government. Secondary education is controlled by the Federal Government in lyceums and normal schools. There are also Special Government Schools--one naval, one military, one mining, and one agriculture. There are National Universities at Cordoba and Buenos Aires, and Provincial Universities at La Plata, Santa Fé, and Paraná.

=Government.=--The Constitution vests the executive power in the hands of a President, who is also Commander-in-chief of the troops, elected by representatives of the provinces for six years, not being immediately re-eligible; and the legislative authority in that of a Senate of thirty members, two chosen by the capital and two by the legislature of each province, and a House of Deputies of one hundred and twenty members elected for four years by the people, one-third of the Senate retiring every three years, and one-half of the House retiring every two years.

The Judicial system consists, like that of the United States, of a Federal Supreme Court and Courts of Appeal, with Provincial Courts in each state for non-national or single state cases.

=Cities.=--The chief seaport is Buenos Aires, the capital and largest city, with a population of 1,315,000 in 1911. La Plata lies twenty-five miles to the southeast of the Federal capital, and, although founded in only 1882, already numbers 80,000 inhabitants. A canal joins it to the vast docks of Ensenada.

Córdova (53,000), nearly in the center of the state, is the seat of the chief observatory of the Republic.

Rosario (135,000), on the right bank of the Paraná, more than two hundred miles up from the La Plata inlet, is a substantially built town, and a great outlet of the animal produce of the interior plains.

Tucuman (55,000) and Salta in the northwestern mountain region, and Mendoza (32,000) at the eastern base of the Andes, where they are crossed to enter Chile, with Corrientes (18,000) on the Paraná, are other important places.

=Buenos Aires= (_bwā´nōs ī´rez_; Sp. pron. _bwā´nōs ī´res_; Eng. pron. usually _Bonos Ai´rez_) stands on the right bank of the Plata, which here, at a distance of one hundred and fifty miles from the open sea, is twenty-eight miles across.

The city is partitioned into blocks of about one hundred and fifty yards square. The streets are regularly laid out at right angles to each other and well lighted. Many are planted with trees, and there are numerous open squares and several fine parks, the most famous being Palermo Park (eight hundred and forty acres). The main buildings are the Roman Catholic Cathedral, the chapel of Santa Felicitas, the Casa Rosada, or Government House, the university, the Opera House, and various government and municipal buildings. Much of the town has lately been rebuilt on European lines. It is the terminus of six railway lines, and has excellent street car, cable, and telephone services. There are manufactories of furniture, machinery, carriages, leather, hats, textiles, boots, tobacco, liquors, etc., and the trade is very large.

An elaborate system of harbor works was carried out between the years 1887 and 1895 at a cost of twenty million dollars; it includes an advanced river wall, a north and south basin, and a series of four docks, which connects two channels of the Rio de La Plata, and so brings large vessels up to the wharfs. About half of the inhabitants are of European birth or descent. Among the Europeans the vast majority are Italian; the rest are principally Spanish, French and British. Newspapers are published in French, English, Italian, and German, as well as in Spanish.

=History.=--The river La Plata was visited by the Spaniards in 1516, and the country was colonized in 1535, when Buenos Aires was founded. For many years the country was regarded as a part of Peru. The progress of the colony was not more hindered by the bloody wars which prevailed with the natives for a hundred years than by unwise legislation at Madrid.

In 1776 Buenos Aires became the capital of a new viceroyalty. In 1806 that capital was occupied by a British force under General Beresford, but the town was soon besieged and compelled to surrender. In 1808 the British forces under Whitlock assaulted the town, but after very severe loss were themselves compelled to capitulate.

In 1810 the colonists founded a local provisional government. A sanguinary war for independence followed, which did not cease till 1824. Spain acknowledged the independence of the country in 1842. The first half-century of Argentine autonomy was much disturbed by revolutions.

The Brazilian-Argentine war against Paraguay (1865-1870) was interrupted and followed by renewed revolts at home. For a time the great material progress of the country was accompanied by an equally remarkable movement in favor of stability of government and the repression of factions. But once more dissensions and an insurrection in Buenos Aires led to civil war (1890), which again was followed by a disastrous financial panic (1891); and political and commercial crises, with riots and risings in various parts of the country, continued to succeed one another and to prevent progress. In May, 1910, the Argentine celebrated its centenary of independence.

=BRAZIL= (_brä-zil´_; Portuguese pron. _brä-zēl´_), a republic of South America, of which it covers nearly half, is little less in area than the whole of Europe, its area being 3,300,000 square miles, including the Acrá territory bought from Bolivia in 1902. It has a length of 2,660 miles, and a breadth of 2,705 miles between extreme points. It borders on every state in South America except Chile. The name was given by early explorers from thinking that the red dyewood (brazil-wood) found here was identical with the East Indian dyewood known to them as Brasil.

=Surface.=--This vast territory presents two contrasted regions. First, the wide, low lying, and humid forest plain of the Amazon River in the north; second, the uplands in the south, which are traversed by radiating hills and mountain ridges, and which present wide grass plains between woods and bush-covered country.

The northern coast is bordered by low, alluvial bottom lands and sandy plains, full of lakes, and in places very sterile; while the southern angle of the country is rolling campo land, bordered by a low sandy coast. Above its eastern angle a large area of coastlands and neighboring plateau is subject to periodical devastating drought.

The highest mountain ranges of Brazil rise in the center of the southeastern uplands, where the Montes Pyrenéos rise to nine thousand five hundred feet, but the coast range, or Serra do Mar, to the south of the beautiful Gulf of Rio de Janeiro, hardly yield to these, for within it the Itatiaiossu is scarcely six hundred feet lower, while the Organ Mountains, at the back of Rio, have summits which reach up to seven thousand five hundred feet.

=Rivers.=--Brazil possesses three great river-systems--the Amazon, La Plata, and San Francisco.

The Amazon and its tributaries drain fully a half of the country. To the east of the Madeira these tributaries are tableland rivers, broken by rapids and freely navigable for comparatively short distances. West of the Madeira they are lowland rivers, sluggish, bordered by extensive flood plains, and afford free navigation for long distances. The La Plata system drains nearly one-fifth of the country through its three branches--the Paraguay, Paraná, and Uruguay.

The first of these is a lowland river, freely navigable for a long distance, while the other two are tableland rivers, full of obstructions, and without free outlets for their upper level navigation.

The San Francisco is a tableland river, flowing northeast between the Goyaz and maritime mountains, and then, breaking through the latter, southeast to the Atlantic. It is not freely navigable because of the Paulo Affonso Falls. The other coast rivers are generally short.

=Climate.=--Brazil lies almost wholly within the tropics, and is still in great part unexplored and unsettled. The climate of Brazil varies greatly--the lowlands of the Amazon and a great part of the coast being hot, humid, and unhealthy, while the tablelands and some districts of the coast swept by the trade winds are temperate and healthy.