Part 158

On February 15, 1898, the United States battleship _Maine_ was destroyed in Havana harbor, and many believed this to have been the work of the Spaniards. Thereupon a congress was held, and a resolution passed demanding the withdrawal of Spain from Cuba. But before the message could be delivered, the American minister in Madrid received his passports and the Spanish government declared war. On April 22, Rear-Admiral Sampson began the blockade of Havana and the northern coast of Cuba with his North Atlantic squadron.

Meanwhile Dewey, who had been stationed at Hong-Kong with the American squadron, was ordered to begin operations, and sailed to Manila Bay in the Philippines. He entered Manila Bay early Sunday morning, May 1, 1898. The Spanish fleet lying in the harbor was protected by the guns of the batteries at Cavité, a few miles from Manila.

The Spaniards knew that he had left Hong-Kong, but he came sooner than he was expected and caught them unawares. He had planned to do this so that he might choose his own time for attack. As soon as he reached Manila Bay he opened upon the Spanish fleet a terrible fire of shot and shell. His fire was answered vigorously from the war vessels and the shore batteries, but the guns of the enemy were not well aimed and their shot did little damage. After a sharp fight of about two hours Dewey withdrew his fleet, in order, it is said, to give his men time for breakfast, but more likely to see how his ammunition was holding out.

After three hours he returned to the attack. By this time most of the Spanish vessels were in flames. An hour later the Spanish batteries “were silenced and the ships sunk or burned and deserted.” In the conflict the Spaniards lost every vessel and hundreds of men were killed, wounded, and missing. No American was killed and but seven wounded; while no American vessel was seriously damaged.

The battle of Manila is one of the great naval actions of history; never before had so much been won with so little loss of life and ships. Congress made Dewey a Rear Admiral, gave him a vote of thanks, and voted him a sword. Soon after the war he was made Admiral, the highest rank in the navy.

About the same time the Spanish Admiral, Cervera, had left the Cape Verde Islands en route for Santiago, where he arrived on May 19. Strict watch was kept by Sampson to prevent the escape of the enemy, and the _Merrimac_ was sunk at night to block the Spanish squadron in the harbor, but the ship drifted too far to prevent Cervera’s exit. This difficult feat was intrusted to Ensign Richmond P. Hobson and six men. They performed their dangerous task, notwithstanding a severe fire from the Spanish land batteries. They were captured, but Admiral Cervera was so moved by their bravery that he sent word to the Americans that they were safe and would be well treated.

=SUMMARY OF SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR, 1898=

=Causes= =Treaty and Results=

_Underlying:_ The Treaty of Paris, December 10, 1898, stipulated as follows: Sympathy for the oppressed Cubans. The “reconcentrados,” people driven Spain gives up title to Cuba. into the towns by Weyler, died by thousands, and Americans who aided Spain cedes Porto Rico, Guam and them are arrested and their the Philippines to the United property destroyed. States.

The proximity of Cuba and its geo- The United States gives Spain graphical position make its situa- $20,000,000. tion of great importance to the United States. The direct cost of the war to the United States is about Destruction of American property. $130,000,000.

Publication of a letter of the Soldiers killed, 430. A large Spanish Minister, in which he number die of disease. speaks slightingly of President McKinley. The United States becomes the guardian of Cuba. _Immediate:_ An increase in our navy and stand- The blowing up of the battleship ing army. _Maine_. The war in the Philippines.

The question of territorial expan- sion in our politics.

=LAND AND SEA ENGAGEMENTS=

=====================+==================+================================= =Name, Location and | =Commanders= | =Casualties= Date of Battle= | +----------------+---------------- | |=United States= | =Spanish= | +--------+-------+--------+------- | |=Killed=|=Wound-|=Killed=|=Wound- | | | ed= | | ed= ---------------------+------------------+--------+-------+--------+------- =THE ARMY= | | | | | | | | | | =Guantanamo= (June |... | 6 | 16 | ... | ... 11-20, 1898) | | | | | | | | | | =Bombardment of |... | ... | ... | ... | ... Santiago= (June 22,| | | | | 1898) | | | | | | | | | | =Las Guasimas=, |=Gen. Wheeler= vs.| 16 | 50 | 28 | 124 Cuba (June 24, |Gen. Linares. | | | | 1898) | | | | | | | | | | =El Caney=, Cuba |=Gen. Lawton= and | 88 | 356 | 120 | 400 (July 1, 1898) |=Gen. Chaffee= vs.| | | | |Gen. Vara de Rey. | | | | | | | | | =San Juan=, Cuba |... | 151 | 1,007 | 204 | 1,340 (July 1-3, 1898) | | | | | | | | | | =Santiago=, Cuba |=Gen. Shafter.= | 2 | 13 | ... | ... (July 10-12, 1898) | | | | | | | | | | =Santiago Campaign=|=Gen. Shafter= vs.| 260 | 1,341 | ... | ... (June 21 to July |Gen. Toral. | | | | 17, 1898) | | | | | | | | | | =Porto Rico Cam- |=Gen. Miles.= | 3 | 40 | ... | ... paign= (July 25-28,| | | | | 1898) | | | | | | | | | | =The Reduction of |=Gen. Merritt.= | 17 | 106 | ... | ... Manila= (August 13,| | | | | 1898) | | | | | | | | | | =THE NAVY= | | | | | | | | | | =Manila Bay=, |American Command- |American Casualties: Philippine Islands |er: =Geo. Dewey.= |Seven men slightly injured. No (May 1, 1898). | |damage to ships. American Vessels: |Spanish Commander:| _Olympia_, |Admiral Montijo. |Spanish Casualties: _Baltimore_, | |All ships destroyed. 450 men _Raleigh_, | |killed and wounded. _Boston_, | | | | | _Concord_, | | | | | _Petrel_. | | | | | Spanish Vessels: | | | | | _Reina Cristina_, | | | | | _Castella_, _Don | | | | | Antonio de Ulloa_, | | | | | _Isla de Luzon_, | | | | | _Isla de Cuba_, | | | | | _General Lezo_, | | | | | _Marquis de Duero_,| | | | | _Cano Velasco_, | | | | | _Isla de Mindanao_,| | | | | _Sandoval_, _José | | | | | Garcia_, _Leyte_ | | | | | and torpedo boat | | | | | _Barcelona_. | | | | | | | | | | =Bombardment of |By torpedo boat | 1 | 11 | | Cienfuegos=, Cuba |_Winslow_. | | | | (May 11, 1898). | | | | | | | | | | =Bombardment of San|=Admiral Sampson.=| 1 | 7 | | Juan= (May 12, | | | | | 1898) | | | | | | | | | | =Before Santiago= |American Command- |American Casualties: (July 3, 1898) |er: =Winfield |One man killed. American Vessels: |Schley.= |_Brooklyn_ struck thirteen times, _Brooklyn_, | |_Texas_ once, but neither badly _Texas_, _Oregon_, |Spanish Commander:|damaged. _Iowa_, |Admiral Cervera. | _Gloucester_. | |Spanish: All ships destroyed, Spanish Vessels: | |more than 600 men killed and _Almirante_, | |wounded, and rest surrendered. _Oquendo_, | | _Christobal Colon_,| | _Vizcaya_, _Infanta| | Maria Teresa_, and | | torpedo boats | | _Pluton_ and | | _Furor_. | | ---------------------+------------------+---------------------------------

The total number of vessels captured from Spain during the war of 1898 was 58.

On June 21, Major-General Shafter arrived off Santiago and successfully landed his troops at Baiquiri, and three days later the Spaniards were driven back from Sevilla. General Shafter then began his attack on Santiago, whither the Spaniards had retreated. Operations began on July 1. The severest fighting took place at San Juan Hill and El Caney, a garrisoned post, where a body of five hundred Spaniards offered a desperate resistance for some hours. By sundown the hills on which the enemy were posted, including San Juan, were occupied by the Americans. The attacking force consisted of regular infantry and dismounted cavalry, with an irregular corps of mounted men known as the Rough Riders. The latter, under the command of Colonels Leonard Wood and Roosevelt, took a prominent part in the fight. On July 4 the city was summoned to surrender, but without success. In the meanwhile Admiral Cervera’s squadron had been ordered to sea by the Madrid government. He accordingly left Santiago harbor the same day at nine a. m. with the object of effecting its escape by keeping close to the western shore. The American fleet, temporarily under Schley’s command, at once engaged the Spaniards, and by two o’clock succeeded in burning, beaching, or capturing all the enemy’s vessels. After this Santiago surrendered, July 17, and Spain sued for peace. It was arranged that Spain should evacuate Cuba, should cede Porto Rico to the United States, as well as her islands in the Antilles, and one of the Ladrones, and should leave the United States in the possession of Manila. In 1899 a treaty was signed, and Spain evacuated Cuba, the Philippines, and other islands for an indemnity of twenty million dollars.

=Insurrection in the Philippine Islands.=--A day or two after the final vote on the treaty a body of Philippines under Amilio Aguinaldo, a native of great ability, attacked the American defenses at Manila. The next day the Americans returned the attack, and for nearly a year there was a resistance to the American rule on the part of the tribes which Aguinaldo represented. These tribes belonged to the Tagals, a Malay race. They are in a minority as regards the whole population, but are among the most intelligent. By the close of the year 1899 the organized resistance on the part of the Tagals appeared to be nearly ended, and the army of Aguinaldo reduced to marauders and bandits, and the insurrection against the authority and sovereignty of the United States was ended in July, 1902, after the capture and surrender of the insurgent leader.

=Assassination of McKinley and Succession of Roosevelt.=--Shortly after his re-election to a second term, on September 6, 1901, the country was shocked by the assassination of President McKinley by an anarchist named Czolgosz. This was the third time in the history of the country that the chief executive was stricken down by the hand of an assassin. The Vice-President, Theodore Roosevelt, then succeeded to the presidency and continued, in all essential details, the policy of his lamented predecessor.

Under President Roosevelt, a champion of administrative reform and the regulation of commercial trusts, the status of Cuba was settled; progress was made in the Philippines; the navy was very greatly strengthened; the Isthmian Canal question was solved in favor of the Panama route, and the Republic of Panama recognized; and the President reasserted with emphasis the Monroe Doctrine as the key to foreign policy. The Alaska boundary was fixed by a mixed commission. The United States took part with the European powers in armed intervention at Peking in 1899; and an arbitration treaty with Great Britain and other countries was arranged for.

In a second term (1905-1909) President Roosevelt maintained his popularity by the same policy. In 1906 an insurrection broke out in Cuba, and in October American troops again took possession of the island. When confidence had been restored the United States authorities withdrew.

=President Taft and the Rise of the Progressives.=--In 1908 the Republican, Taft, defeated Bryan, the Democratic candidate. Mr. Roosevelt had refused to be a candidate again and was instrumental in securing Mr. Taft’s nomination. President Taft was elected on a Rooseveltian programme of anti-trust legislation and promises of a reduced tariff. In 1910-1911 attempts were made at a Reciprocity of Duties Treaty with Canada, so as to establish freer trade between the two countries. The Canadian general election of 1911 gave an emphatic negative to the proposal.

During the latter part of 1912 a renewed insurrection in Mexico brought about strained diplomatic relations with that country.

In Ohio, Minnesota, and Indiana, however, Democratic governors were elected, and these results pointed to a political reaction in the West, largely owing to supposed inequities in the tariff and to the dominance of trusts.

In 1910 an “insurgent” or progressive section, to which Mr. Roosevelt adhered, formed itself within the Republican party; and the state elections in November resulted in a Democratic triumph without a parallel since that of the year 1890.

=Democrats Restored to Power under Leadership of Woodrow Wilson.=--In 1913 Woodrow Wilson swept the country on a Democratic programme, having a clear majority over the two Republican ex-presidents (Roosevelt and Taft) opposed to him. His election was fought chiefly on the tariff question, his main argument being that some industries were receiving unfair protection at the expense of others.

Shortly after the inauguration of President Wilson (May 31, 1913), the Seventeenth Amendment to the Constitution of the United States, providing for the direct election of Senators by the people of the states, instead of by their respective legislatures, became effective. On October 3, of the same year, the Underwood Tariff Act became a law. Following this, on December 23, the Currency and Banking Bill, providing regional reserve banks throughout the country, was signed.

In 1914 the continued insurrectionary conditions in Mexico led to the seizure of the custom house at Vera Cruz by a United States fleet, resulting in an American loss of eighteen marines killed and seventy wounded. Subsequently diplomatic representatives of the republics of Argentina, Brazil, and Chile (popularly known as the “A B C powers”) offered their services as mediators, were accepted by the United States and the troops withdrawn. The temporary lull, however, thus brought about was soon succeeded by a series of struggles between the provisional Mexican government and the insurrectionists, led by Francisco Villa, which have ever since continued with little abatement. In 1916 the border raids of the Mexican bandits resulted in so many outrages upon American lives and property that the President was compelled to order United States troops to the Rio Grande for the protection of our citizens, and finally a detachment under General Pershing was sent into Mexican territory.

The important La Follette Seaman’s bill, to promote the welfare of American seamen and provide for their safety at sea, was approved March 4, 1915; and, in the same year (February 20), the Panama-Pacific Exposition was opened at San Francisco. On November 12, the United States assumed a protectorate of the Republic of Hayti.

During 1916 the Republic of Santo Domingo likewise passed under an American protectorate and the Rural Credits Bill became a law, whereby a system of Farm Loan Banks was created.

From the very beginning of the European war the administration of President Wilson was brought face to face with numerous intricate and several critical diplomatic situations growing out of that titanic conflict. The relationship of the United States, as a neutral nation, to the belligerent countries engaged in this war gave rise to more difficult and significant issues than any other president was compelled to meet since the time of Lincoln, if indeed, it has not been unprecedented in our entire history.

=President Wilson Re-elected and His Policies Approved=.--At the national election, in November, 1916, President Wilson was re-elected over his opponent, Charles E. Hughes. Following his re-election (December, 1916) the President proffered the services of this government to the belligerent powers of Europe in an effort to re-establish peace between these great contending coalitions. In spite of foreign complications, the year 1916 closed a period of unparalleled industrial and commercial prosperity for the United States, and more than ever confirmed its position as a great world power, with an immense field of new possibilities and corresponding duties.

On January 2, 1917, Congress re-assembled and began the consideration of important questions of national defense, railroads, and foreign policy growing out of the European war. In February, diplomatic relations were severed by the United States with Germany, and was succeeded in March by a declaration of armed neutrality on the part of our government.

Meanwhile great activity characterized all departments of the national government along lines of military preparedness, supported by unprecedented appropriations by Congress.

The supreme national industrial event of the Wilson administration, however, was the opening of the Panama Canal for navigation on August 14, 1914, and its use since that time as an instrumentality of world traffic.

PANAMA CANAL.--This gigantic engineering project was designated by Count de Lesseps, of France, in 1879, and actual work began by the French Panama Canal Company, in 1881. Negotiations extending from 1901 to 1904 resulted in the taking over of the holdings of the French company by the United States, and work was started by United States government engineers in May of the latter year. Since that time the project has been steadily carried forward to completion.

The Canal is about fifty miles in length from deep water in the Caribbean Sea to deep water in the Pacific Ocean. The channel ranges in width from three hundred to one thousand feet. The average bottom width of the channel in this project is six hundred and forty-nine feet, and the minimum width is three hundred feet. The Canal has a minimum depth of forty-one feet. The time required for the passage of a ship of medium size through the entire length of the Canal is estimated at from nine and one-half to ten hours, and for larger vessels from ten and one-half to eleven hours.

The actual construction cost at present estimated for completing the Canal is $325,201,000, which includes $20,053,000 for sanitation and $7,382,000 for civil administration. These figures do not include the $50,000,000 paid to the New French Canal Company and to the Republic of Panama for property and franchises. Hence it is estimated that the total construction cost of the Canal to the United States will approximate $375,000,000.

=TABLE OF STATE AND TERRITORIAL GOVERNMENT=

In all the States except Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Kansas, Montana, Nevada, Oregon, Utah, Washington and Wyoming and the Territory of Alaska, the right to vote at general elections is restricted to males of twenty-one years of age and upward. Women in Illinois, Iowa and Michigan have a restricted vote and in several States may vote at school elections.