Chapter 2
Early English, 1189 to 1272. Narrow, pointed windows, lancet-shaped; clustered pillars. Example, the choir, Westminster Abbey, or Salisbury Cathedral. 1272 to 1307 was another _Transition_ period, tracery being introduced into the windows, as at the east end of Lincoln Cathedral.
Decorated, 1307 to 1377. Geometrical tracery in windows, enriched doorways, and beautifully arranged mouldings. The Lady Chapel of Ely Cathedral is a good example. This style underwent _Transition_ from 1377 to 1407, when the lines became less flowing, as in the choir of York Minster.
Perpendicular, 1399 to 1547. Upright lines of moulding in windows; doorways, a combination of square heads with pointed arches. Example, King's College Chapel, Cambridge.
Tudor, or Elizabethan, 1550 to 1600. A debased species of Perpendicular, mostly employed in domestic architecture.
Jacobean, 1603 to 1641. An admixture of the Classical with the Gothic, or Pointed style.
ARIANS. Heretics, so named from Arius, a native of Libya, their first founder. He was born about the middle of the 3rd century, and taught that God the Son was not equal to God the Father, being neither consubstantial nor co-eternal with the Father. As created by the Father, Arius looked upon our Lord as the highest of all creatures, and in that sense the Son of God. These heretics were condemned by the Council of Nice, in 325.
ARMINIANS. A party so-called after Arminius, (the Latin form of James Harmensen, a Dutchman,) the opposer of Calvinism. Arminius held that salvation is possible for all men, if they repent and believe in Jesus Christ, inasmuch as He died for the sins of the whole world. They reject the doctrine of Predestination, as generally held; and the doctrine of final perseverance, they deem uncertain and needing more proof. (See _Antinomianism and Calvinism_.)
ARTICLES, THE THIRTY-NINE. The Church of England's definition of Christian doctrine, and as such they have to be subscribed by all who seek Holy Orders. Formerly, every graduate of our Universities had to subscribe them. Many of the Articles are of a confessedly elastic nature, being so framed as to embrace the views of the various parties in the Church: but at the same time they are not so indefinite as many would have us believe.
Their history is this:--In 1553 Cranmer, Ridley, and others, drew up 42 Articles, which were more or less taken from the "Confession of Augsburgh," composed by Luther and Melancthon. In 1562 these 42 Articles were entirely re-modelled by Archbishop Parker and Convocation, when they were reduced to 38. In 1571, Parker and Convocation added Article xxix., which made up our present 39, which were subscribed in the Upper House of Convocation, by the Archbishops and Bishops, and by all the clergy of the Lower House. They were published the year after (1572) under the superintendence of Bishop Jewel, and the Ratification, still subjoined to them in the Prayer Book, was added. With regard to their arrangement--The first five treat of the doctrine of the Holy Trinity; the three following establish the rule of Christian Faith; from the ninth to the eighteenth they bear reference to Christians considered as individuals; and thence to the end they relate to Christians, considered as Members of a Church or religious society.
ASCENSION DAY or HOLY THURSDAY. The observation of this Festival cannot be traced with certainty to an earlier period than the 4th century, although, in the Western Church, at any rate, it was in St. Augustine's time so thorough and universal, that he supposes it to have had an Apostolic origin. It is one of the four great Festivals of the Church. It is held forty days after Easter, in memory of our Lord's _Ascension_ into heaven. Special psalms and lessons are appointed for the day, as is also a special preface in the Communion Service.
ASH-WEDNESDAY. The first day of Lent. It is so called from the ceremony anciently used in admitting people to penance, ashes being sprinkled upon their heads.
A special service, called the Commination Service, is appointed for use on this day.
ASSOCIATIONS, CHURCH, _see_ Societies.
ATHANASIAN CREED, _see_ Creed.
ATHEIST. The "fool who saith in his heart, There is no God." Ps liii. The _atheist_ differs entirely from the _sceptic_ and _agnostic_ (which see). In "A plea for Atheism," the writer says: "If the word 'God' is defined to mean an existence other than that existence of which I am a mode, then I deny 'God,' and affirm that it is impossible that 'God' can be." The Psalmist's definition is the clearer.
ATONEMENT. Originally _at-one-ment_, the reconciling of two parties who were before at variance. From that the word easily passed into a term to denote the means by which the reconciliation was made, viz: the life and death of our Saviour, Eph. ii. 16.
The doctrine of the Church on this subject is expressed in Article 11.
ATTRITION. This term is used by Romanists to denote the lowest form of Contrition, or Repentance; namely, mere sorrow for sin because of its consequences.
BANNS OF MARRIAGE _see_ Matrimony.
BAPTISM. This word means literally "dipping." Holy Baptism is one of the two Sacraments taught by our Church to be generally (universally) necessary to salvation. The _reason_ why the Church baptizes is well shewn in the exhortation which immediately follows the Gospel in the Service for the "Public Baptism of such as are of riper years." The _doctrine_ of the Church on the subject is explained in Article xxvii., and in the Catechism; also throughout her Baptismal Offices she shows what she believes it to be. Notwithstanding this, there are diverse views held of Holy Baptism by parties in the Church; as, for example, some will deny that the passage in John iii. 3 has anything to do with Baptism, although the Church quotes it as a Scriptural authority for Baptism in the exhortation previously alluded to. These seem to degrade Holy Baptism into a mere formal admittance into the visible Church, this being the view the Wesleyans of the _present day_ take, but not their founder's view. Hooker, in his fifth book, writes thus,--"Baptism is not merely a sign or token of grace given, but an instrument or mean whereby we receive that grace; for it is a Sacrament instituted by God for incorporation into Christ, and so through His merit to obtain (1) that saving grace of imputation which takes away all former guiltiness, (2) that infused divine virtue of the Holy Ghost which gives to the powers of the soul their first disposition towards future newness of life. It is a seal perhaps to the grace of election before received; but to our sanctification here a step that hath not any before it."
BAPTISM, ADULT. This office was added at the last revision of the Prayer Book, in 1661. It was made necessary by the general neglect of Church ordinances during the Rebellion. The Service is formed from that for the Baptism of Infants, but there are important differences, as will be seen by comparison. Confirmation and Communion should immediately follow the Baptism of an adult.
BAPTISM, INFANT. The question whether it is right to baptize infants will be gone into under the head of _Baptists_. Our present service for the Baptism of Infants is the out-come of many much older. Baptism should always be administered in the presence of a congregation, as the Rubric orders. The question about _sponsors_ will be gone into under that head. The first prayer is by Luther, the second is from an old Office; the Gospel, with nearly all the addresses or exhortations here and elsewhere in the Prayer Book, is from the "Consultation," the work of Hermann, a German reformer. The questions to the sponsors are taken from an old Office. The prayer of Consecration came into the present form in 1661; but by Consecration here we only mean that the element of water is separated from common to sacred uses. It is not a necessary part of Baptism, as is shown by its being omitted in the Office for Private Baptism. The only two things necessary for the validity of Holy Baptism are (1) that it should be administered in water, (2) in the name of the Holy Trinity, as is shown by the questions in that part of the Office for Private Baptism which treats of receiving a child publicly into the Church. It is to be noticed that the _rule_ of our Church is that the child should be immersed in the water (see the Rubric before the form of words which accompany the act of Baptism). Thus the rite of immersion can be claimed by any Church people. The custom of affusion, or aspersion, or sprinkling, came into use in the Western Church as early as the 13th century; but in the ancient Church Baptism was so administered to the sick. The difference in the climates of Western Europe and the Holy Land is sufficient to account for the custom.
The words which express the reception of the newly-baptized child into the congregation belong altogether to the English Prayer Book. The ceremony of making the sign of the cross has come down from the ancient Church.
The Address to the congregation, the Lord's Prayer, and the Thanksgiving which follows, were placed here in 1552. It is to be noticed how clearly the Church expresses her belief in the regeneration (see _Regeneration_) of each baptized infant. The latter part of the last exhortation was added in 1661. "The vulgar tongue" of course means the "common" or English language.
The note at the end of the Office, although declaring the eternal safety of a baptized child, dying before it commits actual sin, does not express any opinion as to the future of an unbaptized child.
BAPTISM, PRIVATE. To be used only for "great cause and necessity." This service was drawn up in 1661, chiefly from the "Consultation." It is very much to be deplored that so few of the children baptized at home, who live, are brought to be publicly received into the Church. The distinction which the poor draw between Baptism and Christening as meaning respectively Private and Public Baptism is, of course, unfounded. Baptism is also called "_Christening_," because in it the child is made a Christian, or member of Christ.
Under this head we may also treat of
Lay Baptism. Until 1604 this was allowed in the Church of England, but the rubrics were then brought into such a shape that Baptism by any but a "lawful minister" was distinctly disallowed. Still we find that by the present law, Lay Baptism, that is to say, Baptism by any man, or even woman, is valid so far as to qualify for burial with the usual service. Lay Baptism is allowed in the Roman Church, as it was in the Mediaeval Church, and in primitive times. Such having always been the custom of the Catholic Church, it is well that anybody should baptize a child in a case of great emergency, when a "lawful minister" cannot be procured. Should the child live and be brought to church, the clergyman can always, if doubtful of the validity of the Baptism, use the hypothetical form at the end of the Office for Private Baptism.
BAPTISTS or ANABAPTISTS. A name improperly assumed by those who deny the validity of Infant Baptism. They were formerly called _Anabaptists_ because they _re-baptized_ all who had been baptized in their infancy. The Baptists formed a separate community in England in 1633. They may be looked upon as the successors of the Dutch Anabaptists. Their object in forming themselves into a separate body was (1) for the maintenance of a strictly Calvinistic doctrine; (2) for the exercise of a vigorous and exclusive discipline; (3) for the practice of a literal scriptural ritual, especially in the matter of Baptism. In Church polity they follow the Independents. The Baptists hold that _immersion_ is essential to the validity of the ordinance. Their leading idea is that the Church must consist of true Christians, and not merely of professing ones.
In 1882 in the United Kingdom there were _Sunday_ _Ministers_, _Members_, _Chapels_, _Scholars_ 1,905. 298,880. 3,502. 401,517.
In addition to these they have numerous congregations abroad, and they raise about L200,000 yearly for missionary and benevolent purposes.
Infant Baptism. The following reasons seem to afford ample proof that the baptism of infants has always been the practice of the Church, notwithstanding all the Baptists allege against it.
Under the Law infants were admitted into covenant with God by circumcision when eight days old. Gen. xvii.10, 14, so, too, when the Jews admitted proselytes into their communion, they not only circumcised all the males, but baptized all, male and female, infant and adult.
Thus, when the Apostles were sent "to make proselytes of all nations, by baptizing them" (Matt, xviii.19, should be so translated) would they not baptize infants as well as adults, seeing that such was the Jewish custom?
Compare John iii.5, "Except a man (Greek, except _any one_) be born of _water_ and of the Spirit he cannot enter the _kingdom of God_," with Mark x.14, where our Lord says of infants that "of such is the _kingdom of God_." If so, they must be capable of baptism, both by water and the Spirit.
St. Peter, when speaking of baptism, said the promise was not only to adults, but also to their _children_, Acts ii.38, 39.
Again, where there no _children_ among the whole households which were baptized by the apostles, Acts xvi.15, 33, 1 Cor. 1.16?
The early Fathers show that children were baptized in their time, which, in some cases, was less than a century after the Apostles lived. Justin Martyr, for instance, writing A.D. 148 (_i_._e_., 48 years after the death of the last Apostle), speaks of persons 60 and 70 years old, who had been made disciples to Christ in their infancy. How can infants be made disciples, but by baptism? And, if these had been baptized in their infancy, it must have been during the lifetime of the Apostle St. John, and of other apostolic men.
BARNABAS' (St.) DAY. June 11th. This Apostle's name was changed from Joses into Barnabas, which means the "Son of Consolation." He was a highly educated man, being brought up, as St. Paul was, at the feet of Gamaliel. He travelled with St. Paul until there was a disagreement on the subject of Mark, the kinsman of Barnabas. After they separated, it is probable that St. Barnabas laboured in Cyprus. He is believed to have suffered martyrdom at Salamis by being stoned.
BARTHOLOMEW'S (St.) DAY. August 24th. This Apostle is believed to have been identical with Nathaniel. We are told nothing of his labours in the Bible. He is believed to have worked in Armenia and Lycaonia, and to have suffered martyrdom by crucifixion at Albanople.
This day is rendered famous in history, on account of the horrible massacre of Protestants in Paris in 1572. Thirty thousand persons were put to death in France, and this with the deliberate consent of the Pope and the authorities of the Roman Church!
BELFRY. Originally and properly, a watch-tower. That part of a church where the bells are hung.
BELLS. Bells have been used in churches in England from the 7th century. Their various uses are well summed up in the following monkish distichs,--
"Laudo Deum verum, plebem voco, congrego clerum, Defunctos ploro, pestem fugo, festa decoro."
"Funera plango, fulgura frango, sabbata pango, Excito lentos, dissipo ventos, paco cruentos."
In the Roman Church they are "baptized," with a certain ceremony; in the English Church they are merely consecrated, that is, set apart for a sacred purpose.
The "passing bell" is the tolling of a bell while anybody is dying, or _passing_ out of this life, in order that the faithful may offer prayers on his behalf. It is ordered by Canon 67.
BENEDICITE. The apocryphal ending of Daniel iii. It is a paraphrastical exposition of Ps. 148; it was commonly sung in the Christian Church in the 4th century. In 1549 it was ordered to be sung during Lent instead of the _Te Deum_. It is now generally used when the lessons speak of the Creation. The "three children" are Ananias, Azarias, and Misael, who are better known by their Chaldean names of Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego.
BENEDICTION. A solemn act of blessing performed by Bishops and Priests of the Church. A certain form was given by God Himself for the use of the Jewish Priests, Num. vi.22-27. In our Church several forms are used agreeing with the Office of which they form a part. The ordinary benediction at the end of the Communion Service is from Phil, iv.7, and Num. vi.23.
BENEDICTUS. The song of Zacharias, the father of the Baptist, Luke 1.68-79. The alternate Psalm, called the _Jubilate Deo_, was inserted in 1552 to be used when the _Benedictus_ happened to be read in the second lesson. The song of Zacharias has always been a hymn of the Church.
BENEFICE or LIVING. A church endowed with a revenue for the performance of Divine Service; the holder of which is called a Rector, or Vicar, or Incumbent, or Perpetual Curate (see under each head). Heresy, Simony, and other grave offences, disqualify a man from holding a benefice.
A clergyman can only be deprived of his benefice for want of capacity, Heresy, Contempt of Court, or crime.
BIBLE, THE HOLY. So called from a Greek word, meaning "the books," just as the word _Scriptures_ means "the writings." The Bible is divided into two parts--the Old and the New Testaments, or Covenants. The Old Testament, or the Covenant of God with the Hebrew nation, is written partly in Hebrew, and partly--the latter part--in Aramaic. It is most important to remember that it was written by many different persons, and at widely different times, spreading over the course of 2,000 years. The New Testament, or the New Covenant of God with His people, whether Jews or Gentiles, although also written by many various authors, was produced between the years A.D. 50, and A.D. 100.
The Bible is called the "Word of God" because the authors wrote by the inspiration of the Holy Ghost, Heb. i.i; Acts iv.25; 2 Peter i.21; &c. It is important to remember that we do not claim a _verbal_ inspiration, for the writers, but simply that God put into their minds what they should write. Inspiration did not preserve them from errors in grammar, or natural philosophy, or anything else foreign to the actual design of the Bible, which is the revelation of God, and of His will to man.
Thus, it is most important that we should know what books are inspired, and have a right to form a part of the Holy Scriptures, in other words what books are _canonical_. The Old Testament, as we have it now, was used by the Jews in the time of our Lord, who often quotes from its various books Himself, thus stamping them with the divine authority which they claimed. Ezra seems to have determined the canon of Old Testament Scriptures. With regard to the New Testament, the question of the authenticity and canonicity of some books was very much more difficult to determine, and an enormous amount of labour and scholarship has been expended on the subject. There can be no reasonable doubt now with regard to any of the _books_ of the New Testament; the only thing now doubtful is what the original words were in the places where the ancient manuscripts differ. These differences are called _various readings_. The publication of the Revised Version of the New Testament in 1881 was partly an attempt to settle this question. The differences, as a rule, are very unimportant.
The chief translations of the Bible into English are Wiclif's, 1360; Tindal (or Tyndale) and Coverdale's, 1526; The Geneva Bible, 1560; The Bishops' Bible, 1568. The Translation we use now, called the Authorized Version, was published in 1611. About 50 learned men were appointed by King James 1st for the task.
We will now proceed to consider the contents of the Bible, first remarking that the division into Chapters and verses does not date back beyond the 13th century, that it rests on no authority, and very often spoils the sense.
The Old Testament consists of 39 books, which may be thus classified:--The Books of the Law; The Historical Books; The Holy Writings, or Poetical Books; and the Prophetical Books.
_The Books of the Law_, five in number, were written by Moses, and are called the Pentateuch; they are:--Genesis. Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy.
_The Historical Books_ are twelve. Where the name of the Author differs from the name of the Book it is given in brackets,--Joshua, Judges (Samuel?), Ruth (Samuel or Ezra), 1st and 2nd Samuel (Samuel, Nathan, and Gad), 1st and 2nd Kings (Jeremiah), 1st and 2nd Chronicles (Ezra?), Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther (author not known).
_The Poetical Books_, or _Hagiographa_, consist of five books,--Job (author not known), Psalms (by various authors, about half by David), Proverbs (Solomon chiefly), Ecclesiastes (generally attributed to Solomon), Song of Solomon, or Canticles.
_The Prophetical Books_ are divided into two classes, the Greater Prophets and the Lesser Prophets. They are so called, not from any superiority or inferiority, but from the extent of their writings.
_The Greater Prophets_ are four in number,--Isaiah, Jeremiah (author of two books--his Prophecy and his Lamentations), Ezekiel, Daniel.
_The Minor Prophets_ are twelve,--Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi.
The ordinary reader of the Bible misses much from the fact that the books are not grouped in any chronological order. In the following table the books are placed so as to form a continuous history of the Jews, while, by their side, are the names of those books which should be read as commentaries on the period. The book of Job, however, it is impossible to place. He seems to have been a shepherd king, perhaps of the time of Abraham, but he was not of the Hebrew nation. The two books of the Chronicles contain a summary of history from the Creation down to the Restoration under Cyrus; parts, however, may be read with other books. (_For Table_, _see opposite page_.)
From the time of Malachi to the Birth of John the Baptist, a period of about 400 years, there seems to have been no special revelation from God. The _Apocrypha_ was composed in that period by various authors. Although parts of it are appointed to be read as Lessons in Church, yet it is not considered as inspired, and consequently it does not belong to the Word of God. Our Church, in Art. vi., says that "the other books (viz., the Apocrypha) the Church doth read for example of life and instruction of manners, but yet it doth not apply them to establish any doctrine." The Church of Rome receives the Apocrypha as Canonical.
We now pass on to consider the New Testament. It consists of 27 books, written by eight persons. They were all written in Greek, unless perhaps St. Matthew's Gospel, which some critics hold was originally written in Hebrew. The whole of the New Testament was written before the end of the first century, and during the lifetime of the Apostle John. The books were all received from the first as inspired, except the Epistle to the Hebrews, Epistles of James and Jude, 2nd of Peter, 2nd and 3rd of John, and the Book of the Revelation; but all these were in early times accepted as Canonical. It is still doubtful who wrote the Epistle to the Hebrews.
The _Four Gospels_ are by St. Matthew, St. Mark, St. Luke, and St. John. Of these, the first three are called the Synoptical Gospels, because they give a general view, and contain a brief account of the chief events of our Saviour's life, His miracles and His parables, from the same standpoint. St. John chiefly dwells on our Lord's words and discourses. The word "Gospel" means "_good news_."
The Book of the _Acts of the Apostles_ is generally considered to have been written by St. Luke (c.f. Acts 1.1 with Luke 1.1-4).