Part 20

“Wittenberg.” A town of Saxony of about 12,000 inhabitants. The great elector, Luther and Melancthon are buried here. The town is interesting to art students for several pictures of Cranach’s which it contains. Schadow’s statue of Luther is here, and also one of Melancthon by Drake (see Readings in Art in THE CHAUTAUQUAN for December). The university of Wittenberg was united to that of Halle in 1815.

P. 191, c. 2.—“Scholasticism.” Methods of argument and of philosophy, which are very pedantic or subtile, are said to suit the schools or scholars; that is, they are scholastic.

“Aristotelianism,” ar´is-to-te=´=li-an-ism. The methods of argument and the philosophy of the time was that of Aristotle; hence the name.

“Papal Indulgences.” The Roman Catholic Church claims that when a sin is committed after baptism, the truly penitent must confess and receive sacramental absolution, but that after this there is a temporal penalty which the sinner must undergo in this world or the next. In the early church, when very severe penance was required of notorious sinners, it was sometimes softened by the prayers or intercessions of outside parties to the pope; this was termed indulgence. When the nations of northern Europe joined the Catholic Church, a custom formed among them was adopted as suitable for penitential atonement. Among these peoples, persons guilty of murder or theft could purchase exemption from the injured parties. When this practice was first admitted the church used the money for the poor, in redeeming captives, and in public worship. Abuses soon followed. The people confounded the remission of temporal penalties with the remission of sins, and the church adopted this method of raising money for the Crusades, to build churches, and finally to enable the popes to gratify their personal extravagance. The abuse was at its height with Tetzel. The council of Trent condemned these measures, and since there have been no conspicuous abuses.

“Tetzel,” tĕt´sel. (1460?-1519.) He was educated at Leipsic, and after entering his order, was frequently employed as a vender of indulgences. He is usually represented as a very immoral man, and his abuse of the indulgence system to have been most flagrant. Catholic historians claim that these statements are overdrawn, although they admit his indiscretion. After his trouble with Luther, Tetzel seems to have lost all his influence with the public.

“Theses.” Here are a few examples of these theses:

1. When our Master and Lord Jesus Christ says ‘Repent,’ he means that the whole life of his faithful servants upon earth should be a constant and continual repentance.

32. Those who fancy themselves sure of their salvation by indulgences will go to the devil with those who teach them this doctrine.

43. We must teach Christians that he who gives to the poor, or lends to the needy, does better than he who buys an indulgence.

95. For it is better, through much tribulation, to enter into the kingdom of heaven than to gain a carnal security by the consolations of a false peace.

“Cajetanus,” or Cajetan, kăj=´=e-ta´nus. (1469-1534.) A Dominican monk of superior education. He had held several high offices when sent to Germany to hear Luther. Afterward he went on several important embassies.

“Vicar General.” This was Johann Staupitz, a man of superior character and learning. He was a friend of Frederic the Wise, and under his directions the latter had founded the university of Wittenberg. It was he who had secured a professorship for Luther there. In 1522 Staupitz became the abbot of a Benedictine convent.

P. 192, c. 1.—“Melancthon,” me-lănk´thon. (1497-1560.) Called the second leader of the Lutheran Reformation. After a most careful education at Heidelberg and Tübingen he was given a professorship at Wittenberg, in 1518. He at once became a warm friend of Luther and the Reformation. His remarkable learning in classic literature and in Bible study, with his clear mind and elegant style, at once made him the most prominent teacher in the university. Although offered professorships at other universities, he would never leave Wittenberg. He devoted himself to theology, but was never ordained. His work was mainly done by writing. He wrote many sermons, defended Luther against Dr. Eck, wrote a system of Protestant theology, several commentaries, and helped Luther in his translation of the Bible. It was Melancthon who drew up the “Augsburg Confession,” which became the principal book of the Lutheran church. Melancthon was mild and peace loving, presenting a great contrast to Luther. They were, however, friends to the last, though not always agreeing on the measures to be adopted. After Luther’s death Melancthon became the leader of the German Reformation, and so remained until his death.

“Jonas.” (1493-1555.) A theologian who became a professor at Wittenberg in 1521. He joined Luther in his great movement, and was with him at the diet at Worms. He also assisted in Luther’s translation of the Bible. Having become a preacher at Halle he was banished, and went to Eisfeld, where he died.

“Nuncio,” nūn´shĭ-ō. A messenger, or literally one who carries something new. The word is generally applied to a messenger from the pope to a king or emperor.

“Altenburg,” al´ten-burg. A town of about 20,000 inhabitants. The capital of a duchy of the German empire, bearing the same name.

“Eck.” (1486-1543.) He had been a profound student of theology, and was a powerful opponent in argument. He first appeared as an adversary of Luther, in notes made on the Thesis. After the discussion mentioned he went to Rome to urge severe measures against the reformers, and through his entire life tried to heal the breach in the church.

P. 192, c. 2.—“Perseus,” per´se-us. A hero of Grecian legendary lore. The son of Jupiter, who with his mother Danaë, had been cast adrift at sea in a chest. The chest floated to the island Seriphus, where the king wished to marry Danaë, but to get rid of Perseus, sent the latter to fetch the head of the gorgon Medusa. The gorgons were three sisters who had but one eye in common, and turned everything into stone that fell under their gaze. Perseus obtained winged sandals from the Nymphs, and a mirror from Minerva, in which he could see the reflection of Medusa. When the gorgons were asleep he accomplished his errand, and returned in time to rescue his mother and turn the king and his companions into stone. This gorgon head he afterward gave to Minerva, who placed it on her shield.

EXTRACTS FROM GERMAN LITERATURE.

P. 193, c. 2.—“Apollo of the Vatican.” See THE CHAUTAUQUAN for November.

“Python.” Grecian legends tell of a deluge in which Jupiter destroyed all men on account of their wickedness, except one man and his wife. From the mud left on the earth from this deluge sprang this serpent, or Python. He lived in the caves of Mount Parnassus, but was slain by Apollo, who commemorated his victory by establishing the Pythian games.

“Forehead of Jupiter.” Minerva, or the goddess of Wisdom, is said to have sprung from the forehead of Jupiter.

“Graces.” The Grecian goddesses which had care of social life and its pleasures. They inspired all the virtues and accomplishments which make human intercourse delightful, and were the “patronesses of whatever is graceful and beautiful in nature and art.”

P. 193, c. 2.—“Pygmalion,” pyg-ma´li-on. A legendary king of Cyprus. He is said to have made an ivory statue of a maiden, of such rare beauty that he fell in love with it and prayed Venus to endow it with life. She granted his request, and Pygmalion married the maiden.

“Pantheon,” pan-the´on. Literally, the word means to all the gods; _i. e._, a temple or work dedicated to all the divinities of a nation.

“Transcendentalists.” Those persons who in their reasoning go beyond the facts and principles which spring from experience, and claim a knowledge of spiritual and immaterial things. It is also applied to those whose philosophy is vague and indefinite.

P. 194, c. 2.—“Voss.” (1751-1826.) A German scholar. He was early in life a tutor, and afterward an editor at Göttingen. In 1778 he became rector of the gymnasium at Ottendorf. In 1781 he published a translation of the Odyssey, which has been the standard German translation ever since. He followed this by many original poems, an edition of Virgil’s Georgics, a translation of the Iliad, and in 1799 a translation of the Æneid. Besides these he made translations from many other Latin and Greek writers, as well as from the French and English. He engaged in several controversies with Heyne on literary subjects, and in 1819 an essay in which he attacked the Roman Catholic and the Protestant mystics, caused much discussion.

P. 195, c. 1.—“Faustus.” Dr. Johann Faustus, or Faust, is a character belonging to German tradition. “He was a celebrated Franconian, born about 1480. He is said to have studied magic at Cracow. Having mastered all the secret sciences, and being dissatisfied at the shallowness of human knowledge, he made an agreement with the evil one, according to which the devil was to serve Faust for full twenty-four years, after which Faust’s soul was to be delivered to eternal damnation. The contract, signed by Faust with his own blood, contained the following conditions: ‘(1) He shall renounce God and all celestial hosts; (2) he shall be an enemy of all mankind; (3) he shall not obey priests; (4) he shall not go to church or partake of the holy sacraments; (5) he shall hate and shun wedlock.’” Faust now is attended by a spirit, Mephistopheles, who invents all sorts of dissipation to attract him. He wearies of his life, but can not escape. Toward the end of the period he seeks the church, but all flee from him. At last he is carried away by the evil spirit. It is said that a man who was believed to have sold himself to the devil did live during the time of Melancthon and Luther. Goethe, in his poem, attempts to solve the mystery of the legend. He represents his hero as under the influence of evil that his longing for knowledge has caused, but does not permit the evil to gain the mastery in the end. Faust is represented as seeking and finding in a work which is for the benefit of others, the relief which learning, pleasure, art and culture have denied him. The selection here given is from the first part of the poem, where Faust is watching the sunset at the close of Easter Sunday.

P. 195, c. 2.—“Wagner.”—“Is a very dull pedant. All that Faust disdains as the dry bones and mere lumber of erudition, is choice meat and drink for the intellectual constitution of Wagner. No amount of our modern preparations for examinations would have been too great for him. He is charmed with dead _formulas_, and can not have too many of them impressed upon his memory. * * * The character of this ‘dry-as-dust’ pedant is admirably contrasted with that of Faustus.”—_Gostwick and Harrison._

“Propagandist,” prop´a-gan=´=dist. One who devotes himself to extending any system or principles.

P. 196, c. 1.—“Rose.” In the Gothic system not only the rose was copied, but the oak, oak leaves, thistle, the ivy, the holly, and all leaves and vegetable forms that could be copied.

“Foliated.” Where the mullions or bars which separate the lights in windows are broken into curves, arches and flowing lines, and leaf-like ornaments are added, we have foliated tracery.

SUNDAY READINGS AND POLITICAL ECONOMY.

P. 201, c. 1.—“Forensic,” fo-rĕn´sic. Derived from forum. A place where court was held; hence, used in courts; appropriate to argument or debate.

“Paley.” (1743-1805.) An English theologian. His most important works are “Principles of Moral and Political Economy,” “Horæ Paulinæ,” “Reasons for Contentment,” and his “Natural Theology.”

“In foro conscientiæ.” Before the tribunal of conscience.

P. 202, c. 2.—“Carey.” (1793- ——.) He was educated in Philadelphia, to the book trade, and became a partner in his father’s firm, afterward the largest publishing firm in the country. In 1835 he left the business to devote himself to the study of political economy. The chief principles of his system are given in the present article.

“Diametrically,” di-a-mĕt´ric-al-ly. As remote as possible, as if at the opposite end of a diameter.

P. 203, c. 1.—“Ricardo,” re-kar´do. (1772-1823.) An English political economist. A Jew; he was educated for a business life, and was associated with his father. As he became a Christian the partnership was dissolved. Ricardo, however, became wealthy, studied much, and finally became a member of parliament. His chief work is “On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation.”

“Malthus.” (1766-1834.) An English political economist. He was educated for the ministry and took a parish. In 1798 he published the work on which his reputation rests mainly: “An essay on the Principle of Population.” He afterward traveled much to obtain data to support his theories, and in 1826 published the sixth and last edition.

READINGS IN ART.

P. 204, c. 1.—“Lintels.” A horizontal piece of wood or stone placed above the opening for a window or door.

“Trabeated,” trā=´=be-ā´ted.

P. 204, c. 2.—“Etruscans.” A people formerly inhabiting Etruria or Tuscia, a portion of ancient Italy. Very little is known of their origin, though they are supposed to have come from the north. The people were short and heavy, their language completely isolated from any known language. They formed a confederacy of twelve cities, possessed many flourishing colonies, and carried on commerce. Their religion was a polytheism resembling the Greeks. The monuments of these people still remaining are the walls of their cities, sewers, vaults, tombs, and bridges. Their bronze statues were famous, as well as their pottery. The Etruscans were most prosperous the centuries before and after the founding of Rome. In the long wars which Rome carried on in her struggle to become mistress of Italy, the power of Etruria was finally broken.

“Romanesque,” rō´man-ĕsk.

“Byzantine,” by-zān´tïne, or byz´an-tīne.

“First Crusade.” It started out in 1096.

P. 205, c. 1.—“Buttress.” A projecting support applied to the exterior of a wall, most commonly to churches of the gothic style.

“Turret.” A small tower attached to a building and rising above it.

P. 205, c. 2.—“Pilasters,” pi-las´ters. A square column sometimes free, but oftener set into a wall at least a fifth of its diameter. A pilaster has a base, capital and entabulature, as other columns.

“Polychromy,” pŏl´y-chrō=´=my. The practice of making a building in many colors; also of coloring statues or other works of art to imitate nature.

“Beni-Hassan,” ba´ne-has=´=san. On the east bank of the Nile, about one hundred and forty miles south of Cairo, and famous for its grottoes. There are about thirty of them. They contain an almost endless number of paintings, representing scenes from the life of the ancient Egyptians. Almost our entire knowledge of ancient Egyptian life is based on them. Charles Dudley Warner says of the grottoes: “They are fine, large apartments, high and well lighted by the portal. Architecturally no tombs are more interesting; some of the ceilings are vaulted in three sections; they are supported by fluted pillars, some like the Doric, and some in the beautiful lotus style; the pillars have architraves; and there are some elaborately wrought false door ways.”

“Luxor,” lux´or. A village on the east bank of the Nile, which, with Karnak contains part of the ruins of Thebes.

“Denderah.” “Edfou.” See THE CHAUTAUQUAN for October.

“Cephren,” ceph´ren; “Mycerinus,” mys´e-ri=´=nus.

“Syene,” sy´e-ne. A place in Upper Egypt where syenite was quarried by the ancient Egyptians.

P. 206, c. 1.—“Truncated pyramid.” One whose vertex or top is cut off by a plane parallel to the base.

“Typhonia,” ty-pho´ni-a; “Mammisee,” mam-mi´si. “Pylon,” py´lon.

“Hypostyle,” hy´po-stile. A hall with pillars; that which rests on columns.

“Clerestory,” clēre´stō-ry, or clear-story. An upper story or row of windows in a building of any kind, which rises clear above adjoining parts of the building.

“Usertesen,” u-ser´te-sen.

P. 206, c. 2.—“Abacus,” ăb´a-cus. A tablet or plate upon the capital of a column, between it and the architrave.

“Architrave,” ar´chi-trave. The lower division of an entabulature, resting on the column or the abacus.

“Plinth.” The lowest division of the base of a column. A square, projecting piece with vertical face.

“Astragal,” ās´tra-gal. A little round moulding which surrounds the top or bottom of a column in the form of a ring, representing a ring or band of iron, to prevent the splitting of the column. It is often cut into beads or berries, and is used in ornamental entabulatures to separate the several faces of the architrave.—_Webster._

“Cavetto,” ca-vēt´to.

“Façade,” fa-sād´. Front; front view of a building.

SELECTIONS FROM AMERICAN LITERATURE.

P. 209, c. 1.—“Gentian,” jēn´shan. The _Gentianus crinita_. A branching plant found in low grounds in autumn. The lobes of the corolla are of a deep sky-blue and beautifully fringed.

“Thetis,” the´tis. The selection here given is taken from the first book of the Homeric story. Agamemnon, the commander-in-chief of the Greeks, has compelled Achilles, the favorite warrior, to give up Briseis, his captive. In revenge Achilles has shut himself up in his tent, refusing to take further part in the war. Thetis, the mother of Achilles, has promised to obtain from Jupiter, the king of the gods, a promise to give the victory to the Trojans until Agamemnon shall repent the wrong. Thetis was one of the daughters of Nereus, called here the “Ancient of the Deep,” the god of the Mediterranean.

“Santa Filomena,” Saint Fil-o-me´na. In the early part of this century a grave was discovered with a Latin inscription which read “Filomena, peace be with you.” She was at once accepted as a saint, and many wonders worked by her. In a picture by Sabatelli, this saint is represented hovering over a group of sick and maimed, healed by her intercession. Longfellow here gives the title to Florence Nightingale.

TALK ABOUT BOOKS.

“Home Worship, and the Use of the Bible in the Home,”[M] is a book of real excellence, and will do good. Home, worship, and the Bible as the basis and inspiration of both, are things of no ordinary importance, and it is a joy to every Christian philanthropist that, severally, and in their relation to each other, they are attracting the attention of the thoughtful. The work, heartily commended, is a book for the times—meets a want that many have felt, and guards against dangers to which all are liable. In the midst of multiform benevolent activities, plans and schemes innumerable, for public service, it is quite possible to be so much occupied with the out-door enterprises of the church, as, unwisely, to neglect the religion of the home. The plan and execution of the work are both admirable. The well arranged scripture readings open up the Bible in the richness of its practical teachings, and the daily lessons are readily found suited to every need. The notes, with but few exceptions, express in a plain, terse, common-sense manner, the truth, as held by most evangelical Christians. Being eminently practical, devout in spirit, and free from any offensive dogmatism, they will be accepted as most valuable, even by those who, in a few instances, might suggest a different exposition. As a help to the spirituality and joyousness of domestic worship, the book will prove to many a treasure of priceless worth.

“Christian Educators in Council,”[N] a well filled volume, containing sixty addresses delivered in the National Educational Assembly, at Ocean Grove, August, 1883. The book, like the Assembly, whose work it reports, must do good, and we wish for it a very wide circulation. For this great Assembly, from whose discussions and methods much is expected, the country is indebted to the indefatigable exertions of Dr. Hartzell. From years of toil among the lowly he knew their needs, and the demand for greater and more concerted efforts in their behalf. The thought of a really national convention, with a broad platform on which all Christian statesmen, educators and philanthropists might be represented, was to him an inspiration. After consultation the Assembly was convened, organized, and furnished with a detailed program of the exercises that proved intensely interesting to the multitudes that were present. It was a grand assembly—grand in its conception, in the objects contemplated, and not less in its _personel_. There were able ministers of nearly all denominations, and honored laymen, not a few. The Secretaries of the Benevolent Societies, the U. S. Commissioner of Education, Presidents of Colleges, Editors, Teachers, and Elect Ladies were all heard in person or through well written communications. And they evidently speak from their convictions, confronting us, not with theories, but with facts—facts bearing on the most difficult problems with which the nation has to grapple, _illiteracy_, and the _shame of polygamous Mormonism_. Ignorance is a foe to freedom that must be expelled, and Mormon lust, that changes the home to a harem, crucifies womanhood, and makes children worse than fatherless must be made as perilous to the guilty, as it is infamous in the eyes of all good citizens. The well considered, manly utterances from Ocean Grove have our hearty indorsement. It is a pleasure to say the speeches that so enthused those vast audiences seem worthy of the men and of the occasion.

The admirable Home College Series has reached the eighty-third number. A decidedly practical and useful idea it was to throw these terse, interesting scraps of knowledge into everybody’s hands. The tracts are all good. One that will please all reading people, as well as be suggestive to those who do not know how to read, is Rev. H. C. Farrar’s talk on “Reading and Readers.”[O] While it contains nothing new, it tells well many true and essential facts that every reader ought to consider.

There are no two characters in the list of English writers who hold so warm a place in our hearts as Charles and Mary Lamb. We mention them together, for who could separate him from her any more than they could separate him from his essays? Mary, Charles, Elia, the tales and sketches are woven together in a way unique in literature. It is strange that with all its interests Mary Lamb’s life should never have been written until now, save in scraps, and as the necessary complement in every sketch of her brother. The cloud that hung over her gentle life, the tender, close friendship of the brother and sister, and the interesting circle of friends that formed their circle, make her an exceptionally entertaining character. Mrs. Gilchrist[P] in her book has given us the best that is known of Mary Lamb. Little of the material is entirely new; with few exceptions it has all appeared before, but never so well arranged. The story is carried from her earliest life, when the unsympathetic mother would say to the child, whose brain was full of morbid phantoms: “Polly, what are those poor, crazy, moythered brains of yours thinking alway?” to the time when at eighty death ended the shadowed life. The Hazlitts, Stoddarts, Coleridge and many others receive much attention, but this is necessary, so intimately was Mary Lamb’s life joined to her friends. In a few instances, however, notes on people are introduced into the text, which seem entirely irrelevant, and would have figured better as foot-notes, if introduced at all; as in the case of the story of Mr. Scott, the Secretary of Lord Nelson.