Part 19

P. 39—“Pope.” (1688-1744.) An English poet. From early boyhood he was a student and writer. At thirteen he began a course of self-education, and at twelve wrote his “Ode to Solitude.” The “Pastorals,” his first published work, placed him at twenty-one among the first poets of his time, and introduced him to literary circles. In 1711 his “Essay on Criticism” appeared, and soon after the “Rape of the Lock.” Pope’s translation of the Iliad was the first of his works which was a financial success. In 1725 he edited an edition of Shakspere, and in 1728 produced “The Dunciad,” an attack on various contemporaneous scribblers. Of his other writings the “Moral Essays” are best known. Pope was never married. He was a little, weakly man, critical, narrow, vain, and often untruthful, but withal generous, clear-minded, and true to his friends.

P. 40.—“Fane.” A place dedicated to some deity; hence a place dedicated for worship.

P. 41.—“Republic.” A work of Plato’s, in which he sets forth his ideas of an ideal commonwealth. It treats of both Church and State, but is impracticable for the existing conditions of society.

P. 42.—“Petronius,” pe-tro´ni-us. The period at which he lived is uncertain, but he probably belonged to the age of the Emperor Nero. (A. D. 37-68.) The work here quoted describes the adventures of several young and dissipated men in southern Italy. Only fragments of it remain.

P. 42.—“Seneca.” See C. L. S. C. Notes in THE CHAUTAUQUAN for November.

P. 43.—“Bengal,” ben-gawl´. One of the ten political provinces of India. It is in the extreme east of the peninsula, and includes the regions lying about the mouth of the Ganges and Bramapootra rivers, and the adjacent hill regions.

“Medhurst.” (1796-1857.) An English missionary who spent most of his life in Java and China. Of the latter country and its people he wrote much. He translated the Bible into Chinese, beside publishing the “Chinese Repository,” a “Chinese and English Dictionary,” etc. “China, its Fate and Prospects,” is still a book of high authority.

“Buddha,” bŏod´da. The name not of a particular teacher, but of a class of deified teachers among the Buddhists. Great numbers of them have appeared at different times as saviors of the race. The Buddha of the present period is called Sākyamuni.

“Kalè,” ka´lee. The name of one of the many forms of _Doorgā_, a terrible goddess, so popularly and variously worshiped in Hindoostan. The goddess assumed the name Kalè on the occasion of a battle with a thousand-headed giant-demigod whom she slew. Her most common image is that of a black, or very dark colored woman, with four arms, the upper left arm holding a cimeter, the lower left a human head by the hair. Around her waist as a covering she wears a string of bloody human hands, with an immense necklace of human skulls reaching below the knees. Kalè is a _female Satan_, a most sanguinary goddess, and as terrible as anything the imagination can picture. The ceremonies of her worship require the sacrifice of animals and human beings, and are in keeping with the terrible character they adore.

P. 44.—“Apotheosis,” a-po-the´o-sis. To place among the gods; to deify.

P. 46.—“Numa.” The first king of the Romans. His time is uncertain. He was selected from among the Sabines, after the death of Romulus, and introduced many valuable institutions and laws.

“Augustan Age.” That period in which the Roman mind reached its highest point of culture and activity. Cicero, Ovid, Virgil, Horace, and many others adorned this period. It was called Augustan from Augustus Cæsar, the reigning emperor.

“Jahn,” Otto. (1813-1869.) A German philologist. He studied in the best schools of Europe and held professorships in various universities. He was very liberal in his views, and became famous as an archæologist and philologist. Among his works are editions of Latin classics, a life of Mozart, essays on art, and various miscellaneous papers.

P. 47.—“Allegories.” That is, that the teachings concerning the gods were figurative stories, explaining the facts of human nature and the mysteries of the external world.

“Dionysius.” See Notes in THE CHAUTAUQUAN for October.

“Tholuck,” to´lŏok. Friedrich August Gottreu. (1799-1877.) A German theologian, educated in Berlin, and afterward a professor there. He was transferred to Halle in 1826, where he spent the rest of his life. An eminent Christian, his doctrine at first met with opposition from the rationalism of the university, but changed the views of the majority of the faculty. He left eleven volumes on theology and philosophy.

P. 50.—“Chaotic,” ka-ot´ic. Confused, disordered; like chaos.

P. 53.—“Consanguinity,” kŏn=´=san-gwīn´i-ty.

P. 56.—“Attrition,” at-trish´un. Wearing away, produced by constant friction.

P. 57.—“Conservator,” con=´=ser-va´tor. A keeper, preserver.

“Tabularasa.” A blank tablet.

“Concatenation,” con-căt´e-nā=´=tion. A series of connected events, depending upon one another.

P. 62.—“Concomitant,” con-com´i-tant. A companion; a person or thing connected with another.

“Swedenborg.” (1688-1772.) A native of Sweden educated at Upsal. For several years after leaving the university he was engaged in literary work. Having been appointed Assessor of the College of Mines he assisted the king, Charles XII., in his military operations, until after the death of the latter. His life was spent in scientific pursuits until 1745, when he claimed to have been called of God to reveal a new system of truth. The remainder of his life was spent in work upon the books which explained this system. Briefly, he claimed: One God, revealed to man through Christ; a trinity of principles, not persons; a redemption produced not by vicarious suffering, but by the conquest of the powers of hell; this victory restored to man his spiritual freedom, and gave him an opportunity to work out his salvation; the necessary features of religion are faith and an avoidance of sin. He claimed to reveal a new church—the New Jerusalem of Rev. xxi:ii—and his followers call themselves members of the “New Jerusalem.” His teachings concerning the future world are to be found in “Heaven and Hell,” and his theology is explained in “True Christian Religion.” Swedenborg claimed his writings to have been revealed in communications with the spirit world, and to the last affirmed his own honesty.

“Irvine,” Edward. (1792-1834.) A Scottish minister educated at Edinburgh, and in 1822 ordained to preach. Having been called to a small church in London he soon attracted, by his eloquence, an immense congregation of the nobility, the learned, and famous. Soon a new church was built for him. In 1825 he began to preach the second advent of Christ as a near event, and also to teach that the nature of Christ was one with ours, even in its infirmities and liabilities to sin, a doctrine which led to much controversy. In 1830 it was reported that supernatural phenomena were taking place in parts of Scotland. Irvine became convinced that the manifestations were divine. Soon after they appeared in his congregation and he published an account of them in Fraser’s Magazine. As a result he lost his popularity, was driven from his church, and set aside by the Scottish presbytery. Irvine’s followers obtained a place of worship and established what is now known as the Catholic Apostolic Church. Irvine claimed to have received ordination from the spirit to preach to this body, and was made bishop, a position he held until his death.

“Elymas,” el´y-mas. See Acts xiii; 6-7-8.

“Smith,” Joseph. (1805-1844.) The founder of the Mormons. He first attracted attention by his “Book of the Mormons,” which he pretended to have discovered and translated under angelic guidance. He founded a church at Manchester, N. Y., which was soon moved to Kirtland, Ohio, thence to Missouri, where the conduct of the leaders so incensed the public that they were driven from the country. Smith next located his band in Illinois, but attempting to introduce polygamy as a revealed doctrine, the outraged inhabitants revolted, and in the raid Smith was killed.

P. 67.—“Beelzebub.” The name of the supreme god among all the Syro-Phœnician peoples was Baal, i. e., _lord_, or _owner_; and by adding to it _zebub_, insect, the proper name Baalzebub was formed; the fly-god, the averter of insects.

P. 68.—“Typhon.” In Egyptian mythology Typhon (or Set) was the manifestation of the abstract principle of evil, and at first equally honored with Osiris, the principle of good. Afterward he became the god of sin, and so was at war with Osiris, and an enemy of men. It is said that in the tenth dynasty the priesthood, fearing that Typhon was going to conquer in the conquest between good and evil, obtained a royal decree, ratified by sacerdotal order, to banish him out of Egypt.

“Serapis,” ser-a´pis. The worship of Serapis prevailed in the time of the Ptolemies. It is fabled that in the contest of Typhon and Osiris the latter was slain. He returned to earth in a second existence as the god Serapis. The name is thought to be a compound of Osiris and Apis, the soul of the former having entered the body of the bull. The worship of Serapis continued in Egypt long after the Christian era, and was even introduced into Italy.

P. 69.—“Isis.” Isis and Osiris were the only gods worshiped by all the Egyptians. Isis was represented as the wife of Osiris, and with him, one of the great benefactors of the people, he having introduced the plow, and she having taught them how to cultivate grain. As the Greeks influenced somewhat the religion of Egypt, she became the goddess of the moon. The worship of Isis was introduced into Italy in the first century, A. D., and a fine temple built to her at Rome. The ruins of a temple of Isis have been unearthed at Pompeii. In works of art she is represented with the face of Juno, wearing a long tunic, a lotus flower on her head, and in her hand the peculiar Egyptian musical instrument called the sistrum.

“Osiris,” o-si´ris. The husband of Isis. He was called “the king of life,” “the king of gods,” and “ruler of eternity.” He introduced civilization among the Egyptians and traveled through many countries, helping the people. He was murdered by Typhon, his brother, and his body thrown into the river Nile. He is represented as having a human form, and always the head of a man. He is colored green, as the god of vivification. His sacred symbols are the evergreen, the tamarisk, and a sort of Ibis with two long plumes at the back of the head.

P. 89.—“Succinctly,” suc-sinct´ly. Briefly, concisely.

P. 99.—“Periphrasis,” pe-riph´ra-sis. A periphrase; several words used to express an idea; a circumlocution.

P. 107.—“Holocaust,” hol´o-caust. A burnt offering, the whole of which was consumed by fire.

P. 138.—“Poarch.” The disciples of the poarch were the stoics, or followers of Zeno. See notes in THE CHAUTAUQUAN for November.

“Academy.” The disciples of Plato, who taught in a garden near the academy.

P. 149.—“Tacitus.” See notes in THE CHAUTAUQUAN for October.

“Pliny.” See notes in THE CHAUTAUQUAN for November.

P. 148.—“Dulia,” dū´li-a. The word comes from the Greek word for slave, and is applied to the worship of an inferior being, as of the saints.

“Juggernaut,” jŭg=´=ger-naut´. Meaning in Hindoo the lord of the world. One of the most popular of Hindoo idols. His temple is at a town on the Bay of Bengal, and the shrine is considered the most holy in Hindostan. At least one million of people visit there every year. The temple contains several idols. The great festival of Juggernaut occurs in March of each year. The idol is taken from the temple on a ponderous wheeled platform, and is drawn by a crowd of men and women. It is said that votaries in their excitement have cast themselves under the wheels and been crushed, but this has not occurred for several years.

NOTES ON REQUIRED READINGS IN “THE CHAUTAUQUAN.”

GERMAN HISTORY.

P. 189, c. 1.—“Charlemagne.” After the death of Charlemagne, 814, the kingdom fell to his son Louis. In 843 it was divided between the three sons of the latter. The kingdom remained with the Carlovingian house until 911, when the dynasty became extinct. The entire country was divided into many territories or states ruled by dukes, and the election of the king was given to them. After the death of the last of the Carlovingians the electors chose Conrad I., a Franconian, after whom the Saxons held the throne until 1024. The Franconians succeeded, ruling until 1125, when the Hohenstauffen dynasty began. This latter ended with the death of Conrad IV., in 1254.

“Interregnum.” The first meaning of the word is the time between the death of one king and the accession of his successor; hence a time in which the execution of the government is suspended. Here it refers to an extended period between the death of Conrad IV., 1254, and the rise of the house of Hapsburg. Rudolph I. was the first of this line, and was chosen in 1273, but the house did not become strong until about the time of the Reformation, after which time until the death of the empire, in 1806, it was almost stationary on the throne.

“Dark Ages.” In the broadest sense the term “dark ages” refers to a period extending from the fifth century to about the middle of the fifteenth, in which the intellectual activity of Europe was at its lowest point, and corresponding almost to the middle ages. As used here, however, “dark ages” refers to a period in the literary life of Germany, particularly in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. After the time of the Minnesänger and the poets of chivalry there followed nearly two hundred years of great decay in literature. Hallam in his “Literary History,” quotes Herren as saying that the thirteenth century was one of the most unfruitful for the study of ancient literature, and Leibnitz as declaring that the tenth century was a golden age of learning compared with the thirteenth; and says himself: “The fourteenth century was not in the slightest degree superior to the preceding age.”

“Huss.” (1273-1415.) Born at Hussintz, near the border of Bavaria, and educated at Prague, where he afterward became a professor. Having been installed as a preacher he began to declare against the vices of the clergy and the extravagant expenditures in ornamenting the churches. Huss had been made rector of the university, and his bold speech brought about a war between the archbishop of the cathedral at Prague, and the university. The archbishop had burned the writings of Wickliffe, and Huss declared against the act, using such strong arguments that the former was condemned. The charge of heresy was soon after raised against Huss; he was condemned and ordered to leave Prague. He did not remain away long, but was brought back by his zealous partisans. His doctrines, however, again brought down the papal wrath, and he was pronounced a heretic. He continued to preach and write until summoned in 1414 to a general council at Constance. After a long delay the council condemned him as a heretic, and he was burned at the stake. D’Aubigne says in his “History of the Reformation:” “He seemed to enter more deeply than all who had gone before him into the essence of Christian truth. But he attacked rather the lives of the clergy than the errors of the church. And yet he was, if we may be allowed the expression, the John the Baptist of the Reformation. The flames of his martyrdom kindled a fire which shed an extensive light in the midst of the general gloom, and was destined not to be speedily extinguished.”

“Henry IV.” His father, Henry III., died when the boy was but five years old. His mother was not strong enough to hold in order the nobles of the kingdom, and when Henry was thirteen years old, the regency was seized by an archbishop. After Henry’s trouble with the pope, here related, he returned to Germany to find that a new king, called the priest’s king, had been elected. Henry immediately appointed a new pope, and began war against Rudolph, the new king. Having defeated him he went to Italy, besieged Rome, and after three years took the city and was crowned emperor. His triumph was short, for his sons soon after rebelled, and Heinrich called his father to sign his own abdication. The old king soon after died in great poverty.

P. 189, c. 2.—“Simony,” sim´o-ny. The term is derived from the proper name Simon, who wished to buy the power of the Holy Ghost, (Acts, vii.,) and is applied to the practice of buying ecclesiastical preferment, and of raising parties to church positions for reward.

“Worms,” wurmz. A city of Hesse on the Rhine. It is one of the oldest of German cities, and was the scene of the Nibelungenlied. Many diets of the empire were held there.

“Mayence,” ma´yangs. The French for Mentz. A city of Germany on the left bank of the Rhine, near its conjunction with the Main. It has been an important city since the time of the Romans. Gutenberg was born and died there.

“Augsburg,” owgs´burg. A city of Bavaria, first established by Augustus in the first century. For several centuries it was free, and a most important commercial center.

P. 190, c. 1.—“Canossa,” ca-nos´sa. A town in the northeastern part of Italy.

“Parma.” See THE CHAUTAUQUAN for December.

“Holy Feme.” These tribunals rose in the twelfth century and disappeared in the sixteenth. Sir Walter Scott, in “Anne of Geierstein,” has given an account of the Westphalian Fehmgericht, as it was called.

“Westphalia,” west-phā´li-a. A western province of Prussia, bordering on Holland.

“Dortmund,” dort´mŏont. A town of Prussia in the province of Westphalia.

“Hildebrand,” hĭl´de-brand. (1018?-1085.) Pope Gregory VII. He was educated in a monastery and became a monk. Having been made prior of the abbey of St. Paul, he reformed many abuses and became prominent in the church. He at first refused the office of pope, but was compelled to accept. He immediately, on taking the position, instituted strong measures against simony and the licentiousness of the clergy. He summoned Henry to Rome to answer for his conduct, when there followed the trouble already related. Just before the capture of Rome the pope fled. Although Robert Guiscard soon after triumphed over his (the pope’s) enemies, his health was broken, and he retired to Salerno, where he died. His last words are said to have been: “I have loved righteousness and hated wickedness, therefore do I die in exile.”

“Peter the Lombard.” (1100?-1160.) An Italian theologian, He was a pupil of Abè, and the tutor to the son of the king of France. He afterward became a professor in the university of Paris, and bishop of the city. His greatest work was a collection of passages from the church fathers on doctrinal points. This is still in repute.

“Seven Sacraments.” The seven sacraments of both the Latin and Greek Churches are: Baptism, confirmation, penance, the eucharist, extreme unction, order or ordination, and matrimony.

“Eugene IV.” (1383-1447.) Pope from 1431 until his death. During this period two important councils were held; that of Basel, in which there were efforts made to heal the Hussite schism, reform the clergy, and bring about a union between the eastern and western churches and the council of Florence. Eugene’s term was embittered by civil wars and the outbreaks of numerous enemies.

“Transubstantiation.” The Roman Catholic Church believes the bread and the wine used in the eucharist to be converted into the body and blood of Christ.

“Lateran,” lat´e-ran. In the Lateran Church at Rome have been held eleven important historical councils. The fourth, at which this doctrine was proclaimed, occurred in November, 1215, and is said to have been “the most important ecclesiastical council ever convened.”

“Auricular,” au-ric´ū-lar. Literally, told in the ear.

P. 190, c. 2.—“Council of Trent.” The nineteenth œcumenical council was caused by Luther’s doctrines. It began in 1545, and after twenty-five public sessions, adjourned in 1563. The chief results of the council were: Tradition was declared to be equally with the Bible a standard of faith; the Catholic doctrines of sin, justification and the sacraments were defined; and the doctrines of extreme unction, ordination, celibacy, marriage, purgatory, relics, indulgences, etc., were promulgated.

“Gutenberg,” goo´ten-bĕrg. (1400-1468.) The partnership between Faust and Gutenberg was closed in five years (1455) because Gutenberg failed to pay the money advanced. After this Gutenberg carried on a printing house alone until, in 1465, he entered the services of Adolphus of Nassau, as a gentleman of court.

“Faust,” fowst. He was a rich goldsmith, and probably had nothing to do with the invention of printing. The books produced by this firm were an indulgence, “An appeal to Christendom against the Turks,” and a celebrated Latin Bible called the Mazarin Bible. After the dissolution of this firm Schöffer and Faust carried on the business.

“Schöffer,” shö´fer.

P. 191, c. 1.—“Schwartz,” shwarts. His true name was Aucklitzen, but his fondness for magic, called the _black art_, led to his surname of Schwartz, which in German means black. It is considered by many that Schwartz applied the use of gunpowder to war and the chase, as its composition was supposed to have been known before his time.

“Agincourt,” a´zhĭn-koor. A town on the road from Calais to Paris, where, in 1415, Henry V., of England, defeated the French army. See “Pictures from English History,” in THE CHAUTAUQUAN for June, 1883.

“Eisleben,” īs´lā-ben. A town of Saxony of some 13,000 inhabitants. It is interesting as the place where Luther was born and died. The house in which he died still stands.

“St. Martin’s Day.” The day appropriated to St. Martin in the saints’ calendar. He was a pope of the Catholic Church in the seventh century. As he opposed the spread of the doctrine of Monothelitism, or the doctrine that Christ had but one will in his two natures, and, as well, opposed the edict of the ruling emperor, which forbade all discussion on this subject, he was stripped of his clerical honors and banished. He is honored as a martyr.

“Raphael,” răf´a-el. (1483-1520.) The most famous of Italian painters.

“Copernicus,” ko-per´nĭ-kŭs. (1473-1543.) He first studied medicine and afterward spent some time in Italy, studying astronomy, where he also taught mathematics. In 1503 he returned to Prussia as a clergyman. He found time from his duties to study astronomy, and began to investigate the Ptolemaic system, for which he substituted the planetary system. The arguments and proofs of this system he published in six volumes, the first copy of which was placed in his hands the day of his death.

“Eisenach,” ī´zen-ak. A city of Germany on the borders of the Thuringian forest. The castle of Wartburg is near the town.

“Erfurt,” ĕr´fŏort. A city of Saxony of about 43,000 inhabitants. The most interesting building there is the old Augustine convent, where Luther lived; it is now used for an asylum for orphans.

“Elector.” This elector was Friedrich the Wise, of Saxony. (1463-1525.) He founded the university at Wittenberg, and, although not thoroughly in favor of the Reformation, he protected Luther through his whole life. D’Aubigne says of him: “Friedrich was precisely the prince that was needed for the cradle of the Reformation. Too much weakness on the part of those friendly to the work might have allowed it to be crushed. Too much haste would have caused too early an explosion of the storm that from its origin gathered against it. Friedrich was moderate, but firm. He possessed that Christian grace which God has in all times required from his worshipers—he waited for God.”