Part 19

P. 31.—“Tannin,” tănˈnin, or tannic acid. An astringent principle found in nut-galls and the bark of many trees. If treated with ether a solid is obtained which is soluble in water. It is used in tanning leather.

“Starch.” The grains of starch are easily found. Wheat, oats, arrow-root, sage and tapioca all furnish excellent examples.

“Crystals.” Răphˈi-des is the name given by botanists to the little crystals found in the tissues. A section of an onion will reveal them. Also, the juice of the hyacinth.

P. 34.—“Cochineal Cactus,” cŏchˈi-nēal. The cactus from which the cochineal insects, whose bodies are sold in the shops for a red dye, are obtained. The plant is also called cochineal fig, and is raised with as great care for food for the insect, as is the mulberry tree for the silk worm.

P. 35.—“Vessels.” The “dotted” vessel, or duct, is a long, open tube whose sides are marked by pores, or dots. A transverse section of a radish will furnish an example. A fern will furnish an example of “reticulated” cell; almost any common plant contains the “annular” and “spiral” cells.

P. 36.—“Epidermis.” All varieties of cells will be found in the epidermis together with the mouths, or stomata. For examination a layer should be carefully removed with a razor or knife, a little water put on it to prevent too rapid drying, and the whole covered by a thin glass.

P. 37.—“Volatile oil.” That which wastes away when exposed to the atmosphere; as musk.

P. 39.—To prepare sections of wood for slides there is a very simple instrument which may be made at home by any one possessed of a little ingenuity. Let a block of hard wood be selected, one and one-fourth inches square by two inches in length, its ends perfectly smooth. In one end drill a hole one-fourth of an inch in diameter, lengthwise, one and one-half inches. In the other end insert a common wood screw, its point filed square, until it reaches the hole. In the side of the block, one-half inch from the end in which the hole has been bored, insert another screw, with square point; this is to be used as a clamp. To cut the section take a branch the proper diameter, and which has been boiled in water, place it in the hole, and clamp solidly with the screw at the side. With a keen razor cut off the end even with the block. By turning the screw in the end of the block the branch will be pushed forward any distance desired, and the section can be cut by a sliding motion of the razor across the stem. The slices should be removed from the knife with a camel’s hair brush, slightly dampened, and may be preserved in weak spirits. The work is, of course, very delicate, and requires the skill and nicety of touch which only practice brings. To mount the sections in Canada balsam, as Dr. Wythe advises, the object should be placed exactly in the center of the slide, which must be carefully cleaned from dust, and a drop of the balsam placed upon it; hold the slide over a flame until the balsam spreads over the object. Air bubbles should be broken with a needle. A glass cover, warmed, should now be placed on the object and pressed sufficiently to remove the superfluous balsam. The whole should be put in a warm place until thoroughly dry.

P. 42.—“Showers of blood,” or blood-rain. A shower of reddish dust mixed with rain, which has been known to fall in several places on the eastern coast of the Atlantic.

P. 42.—“Diatoms.” “They are found in great abundance in the mud of rivers, lakes and ponds. They are also present in those deposits of clay which once formed the beds of rivers and lakes, and which are now dry. In order to procure the diatoms from these deposits, the earth or clay should be well washed with pure water, and the deposit allowed to settle and the water poured off. This may be repeated several times. The deposit is then to be washed with hydrochloric acid, and when the effervescence is over, the acid is poured off, and a fresh portion is added. This may be repeated several times. When no action occurs by its use cold, the deposit may be transferred to a watch-glass, and kept over a spirit lamp, at a temperature of about 200° for three or four hours. The deposit must then be well washed with pure water, and will be found to consist almost entirely of diatoms.”—_Lankester._

P. 47.—“Fungi,” fŭnˈji. No class is so easy to study in the winter. If fruit, bread and the like are allowed to mould, any number of interesting objects will be found. In the woods fungi are to be gathered from bark and old logs. Of these the peziza, or cup-moulds will be found most pleasing. Lichens also abound, and numerous sections can be made from them.

P. 62.—“Big Trees.” These Big Trees are Cedars (_sequoia gigantea_). “Calaveras,” kä-lä-vāˈräs.

“Buds.” Many plants form their buds in the fall. A careful search will reveal such for examination. The lilac and trailing arbutus form their flower buds in autumn, and in vigorous plants a section of the bud will show distinctly the flower stowed away for spring.

P. 63.—“Leaves.” “Opposite” leaves are seen in the chickweed and fuchsia; “whorled,” in Prince’s pine; the “alternate,” in the rose family. The arrangement of leaves on the stem has been reduced to a science, called _phyllotaxy_.

P. 64.—“Bracts.” Seen in the camellia and strawberry. The white portion of the calla blossom is a colored bract called spathe; also, the “pulpit” of the common Indian turnip or Jack-in-the-pulpit.

“Sessile” leaves are seen in the upper leaves of the common primrose and spring beauty. All plants of the violet and the rose families bear _stipules_.

P. 65.—“Lanceolate,” as in the peach; _oblong_, the radical leaves of shepherd’s purse; _cordate_, in the blood-root; _sagittate_, in the stem leaves of shepherd’s purse; _ovate_, in chickweed and violet; _pinnate_, as in the rose; _bipinnate_, as in the sensitive plant.

P. 68.—When the stamens and pistils are on separate trees or plants, the fertilization is accomplished in various ways; insects or birds carry the pollen in many cases, in others the wind wafts it.

“_Hypogynous_,” as in the cress, radish, cabbage, and other cruciform plants.

P. 69.—_Perigynous_, as in the rose family; _epigynous_, as in the caraway, celery, and parsnip.

P. 76.—“Labiate.” The word means lip-shaped, and the order is named from the peculiar shape of the corolla.

P. 77.—“Composite,” or compounded; “Herbaceous,” her-bāˈshus. Plants with soft stems which die every year.

“Coriander,” cŏˌri-anˈder; “Asafœtida,” ăsˈa-fĕtˌi-da.

P. 78.—“Papilionaceous,” pa-pĭlˈyo-nāˌshus. From the Latin for butterfly.

“Tamarind,” tămˈa-rĭnd. A tree 60 to 80 feet in height, with dense foliage. A native of Africa and India. Its pods are preserved and used as a medicine, or as an article of diet.

“Senna,” sĕnˈna. A drug prepared from the dried leaves of the cassia, a shrub raised in India and Nubia. A variety of cassia is found in the United States, but its leaves are less powerful. “Acacia,” a-kāˈshĭ-a, “Mimosa,” mī-mōˈsa.

P. 79.—“Ranunculus,” ra-nŭnˈcu-lŭs. The word means a little frog. Pliny is said to have so named this species because many of its members grow in water where frogs abound.

“Aconite,” acˈo-nite. A plant related to the Hellebores; the common wolf’s bane, or monk’s hood.

“Cruciate,” kruˈshĭ-āt. The petals are arranged in the form of a cross.

P. 80.—“Chimborazo,” chim-bo-rāˈzo. A peak of the Andes in Ecuador. It is the sixth in height among the lofty peaks of the range.

P. 82.—“Floras.” The whole number of plants native to any section forms its flora.

“Urticaceæ,” ur-ti-caˈce-æ. Nettles.

P. 83.—“Rhododendrons,” rhōˌdo-dĕnˈdron; “Azalias,” a-zāˈle-as. These plants both belong to the order of heathworts or _ericaceæ_, the order to which the huckleberry, cranberry, trailing arbutus, and other well-known plants belong.

BIOGRAPHICAL STORIES.

P. 14.—This picture, West declared sixty-seven years after it was painted, contained some touches that he never surpassed.

P. 15.—“Camera-obscura,” cămˈe-ra obˌscūˈra. Literally, a dark chamber.

P. 16.—“Parma.” A province in the north of Italy.

“Death of Wolfe.” This picture contained one feature which at that period was entirely new. West used costumes in his picture which were appropriate to the time and character. Before this the classical costume was used on all occasions. It is said that Sir Joshua Reynolds, the president of the royal academy before West, tried to dissuade him from this innovation, but was the first to acknowledge his success.

P. 24.—“Gulliver,” gŭlˈli-ver. The hero of a satire, “Gulliver’s Travels,” by Swift. He is represented first as a surgeon, and then as captain of several ships. He takes voyages, during which he discovers many strange countries, among them the country of the Lilliputs (lĭlˈli-pŭt), a race of little men.

P. 29.—“Uttoxeter,” ŭksˈe-ter.

P. 34.—“Merry-Andrew.” One whose business it is to make sport for others—a clown, a court fool.

P. 68.—“Oxenstiern,” ŏksˌen-steernˈ.

P. 70.—“Lutzen,” lootˈseen. A town of Prussia.

P. 72.—“Muscovy,” musˈco-vy. The former name of Russia.

GERMAN HISTORY.

P. 129, c. 1.—“Merovingians,” mer-o-vinˈgi-ans. The first Frankish king of whom we have authentic accounts was Chlodio, who ruled about the middle of the fifth century. His successor, Merovæus, gave his name to the first _house_, or dynasty of the Franks; of him we know little more than that he fought against Attila.

“St. Remigius,” re-mijˈi-us, or St. Remy, rehˈmeˌ. (439?-533.) The Apostle of the Franks. When but a young man he was made Bishop of Rheims. By his zealous work he spread Christianity widely through the Frankish kingdom. A contemporary declares him to have been the most eloquent man of his times.

“Rheims,” reemz. A city in northeastern France, whose bishops date from the fourth century, and whose cathedral is one of the finest gothic edifices in Europe.

P. 129, c. 2.—“Arian.” The religion of Arius, a bishop of the fourth century, who held that Christ, though chief of created beings, was not equal to God. A book lately issued by Appleton & Co., “Arius the Libyan,” will be found to be an interesting account of his life and doctrines.

“Paris.” The first account which we have of Paris is from Cæsar, who visited it in the last century before Christ. It was then but a collection of huts on an island in the Seine, and was called Lutetia.

“Poitiers,” poi-teerzˈ. A town of France, one hundred and eighty miles southwest of Paris.

“Abderrahman,” äbd-er-rähˈmän; “Viceroy,” vīceˈroy. One who rules in the place of a king; a substitute. “Caliph,” cāˈliph. The successors of Mohammed were all called caliphs.

“Damascus.” Soon after the death of Mohammed Damascus was captured by his followers and made their capital. Such it remained for ninety years. On the fall of the Ommiyades, their successors, the Abbassides chose Bagdad as their capital.

P. 130, c. 1.—“Islam,” ĭzˈlam. Meaning obedience, submission, is a name given to the religion of Mohammed.

“Gregory I.” (540-604.) Born of a noble family and educated for public life, he was made prefect of Rome in 573, but his strong religious nature led him to give up his position, turn over his wealth to the Church and become a monk. Through the fourteen years of his pontificate, Gregory employed every means to purify and strengthen the Church, sending missionaries into all parts of the world, combating Arianism and rectifying many abuses.

“Augustin.” The Apostle of the English. A Benedictine monk at Rome when chosen by Gregory I. to go on a mission to the Saxons. He went to England about 597, was received kindly by King Ethelbert, and allowed to preach through Kent. After a time Ethelbert adopted Christianity and was baptized. This led to the complete triumph of the religion throughout the kingdom. Augustin was made Archbishop of Canterbury, and until his death had charge of the Church in England.

“Holy See.” A name given to the office of the pope, and also applied to the pope himself, or his court. _See_ is derived from the Latin verb “to sit,” and literally means a seat, or site, hence a place where power is exercised.

P. 130, c. 2.—“Asceticism,” as-cetˈi-cism. The practice common among members of the early Church of withdrawing from all business and society to devote themselves to a rigorous life of penance and self-denial.

“Vatican Hill.” The _Mons Vaticanus_ of the ancient Romans, from which the palace of the Vatican takes its name.

“Dacia,” dāˈci-a. A province of the Romans north of the Danube, and comprising parts of the present countries of Hungary, Transylvania and Roumania.

“Dalmatia,” dal-māˈti-a. A narrow strip of country lying along the eastern shore of the Adriatic, now belonging to the Austro-Hungarian Empire.

“Istria,” isˈtri-a. A peninsula, now of Austria, on the northeastern coast of the Adriatic.

“The German Crown.” In 1806, one thousand and six years after the crowning of Charlemagne, a league known as the Confederation of the Rhine, and of which Napoleon Bonaparte was protector, was formed between the central and southern German states. Its real object was to aid France against Prussia and Austria. The king of Germany resigned his crown then, and the empire came to an end.

P. 131, c. 1.—“Roland.” Roland, or Orlando, was the nephew of King Charlemagne, brought up by him and trained to be a warrior. He is the hero of one of the most famous stories of the middle ages, “The Song of Roland.” Various authors have used this tale. The _Orlando furioso_ of Ariosto, and _Orlando innamorato_ of Boiardo, are prominent among these. In a metrical narrative the story was sung by the minstrels of those times. According to this song Charles had been seven years in Spain warring against the heathen, until there remained but one king unsubdued, Marsilius of Saragossa. He had promised homage, and the step-father of Roland, Ganelon, was, by Roland’s advice, sent on an embassy to him. Ganelon was angry because Roland had advised that he be sent, and in revenge betrayed to Marsilius the pass through which the rear guard and most valiant portion of Charles’ army, under Roland would pass. Charles, with the body of his army, passed through, and when Roland appeared with his twenty thousand men, an army of four hundred thousand heathens attacked him. Roland fought until only a fragment remained before blowing his enchanted horn to summon Charles to his aid. Before his uncle could reach the pass every man was dead. The Saracens fled back to Spain, but the king pursued, completely defeating them. But the death of Roland robbed the conquest of all its glory, and threw France into mourning.

“Paladin,” pălˈa-dĭn. A distinguished knight.

“Roncesvalles,” ron-thĕs-välˈyĕs. The pass in which Roland and his band were destroyed.

“Otto the Great.” Otto I. (936-973.)

“Ardennes,” arˌdenˈ. The forest of Ardennes lies in the northeastern part of France, covering a portion of the department of the same name, and extending into Belgium.

P. 131, c. 2.—“Frisian,” frisˈi-an. Belonging to the Frisians, a tribe formerly living beyond the Batavi, but pushed to the borders of the North Sea by the Franks.

“Aix,” āks. A town in southern France whose thermal springs were known to the Romans.

“Alcuin,” ălˈkwin. (735-804.) His great reputation for learning caused Charles to invite him in 780 from England, his native country, to open a school in France. This institution is supposed to have been the germ of the present University of Paris. Alcuin afterward opened a school at Tours, which became very famous.

“Verden.” A town lying southeast of Bremen, in Prussia.

P. 132, c. 1.—“Haroun-al-Raschid.” See notes in THE CHAUTAUQUAN for November.

“Bretons.” The inhabitants of Brittany, the triangular peninsula which extends from the western coast of France into the Atlantic Ocean.

“Almayne,” alˈ-main.

P. 132, c. 2.—“Eginhard,” ĕgˈin-hart. He had been a pupil of Alcuin, and by him was introduced at court. Eginhard’s history of Charles and his accounts of the Franconian kings have given him a permanent place among the writers of the middle ages. See Longfellow’s poem, “Emma and Eginhard,” in “Tales of a Wayside Inn.”

NOTES ON GERMAN LITERATURE.

It will be found helpful to read the extracts from German Literature in connection with the “Outline of German Literature” in THE CHAUTAUQUAN for November, thus fixing the period to which each author belongs. Care has been taken in selecting the extracts to choose only from those who are in the first rank, and omit all minor writers. The selections are intended to show the style of each, and the lines of thought which he followed.

P. 132, c. 2.—“Würtzburg,” wurtsˈburg. A city of Bavaria on the Main, whose history dates back to the sixth century.

“Minster.” The word comes from the Latin _monasterium_, and is applied to the church or chapel belonging to a monastery; also, as here, to a cathedral.

“War of Wartburg.” In 1206 the landgrave, Hermann I., summoned the poets of his nation to a musical tournament in the castle of Wartburg, in the Thuringian Forest. The competition ran so high that it was called the Wartburg war, and in 1300, a poem, “The War of Wartburg,” appeared, celebrating the event.

P. 134, c. 1.—“Luther.” The value of Luther’s literary work can not be estimated. As a poet, his hymns have won him a permanent place. Beside his original verses, he re-arranged and set to music many of the Psalms, thus really founding the church music of Germany. His translation of the Bible must be counted his most important work; but beside this he left a mass of sermons, theses, tracts and controversial writings which, at the time of their writing, wielded wide influence. These latter show most plainly the fiery spirit of their author, his clear conceptions of truths, and his pure style. Special attention should be called to his “Table Talk,” which contains numberless short and pithy statements of his opinions, and to his Catechism on the Decalogue, Apostles’ Creed, and the Lord’s Prayer.

P. 134, c. 2.—“Nathan the Wise.” This was Lessing’s last drama, and was written to show his own religious views and to advocate the wide toleration in which he believed. The three chief characters, Nathan a Jew, Saladin a Mohammedan, and a Christian are thrown together, and their association causes a strong friendship in spite of their diverse views. They practice the utmost charity toward each other. The story of the “Three Rings” contains the point of the drama. It is taken from an old Italian novel.

READINGS IN ART.

P. 142, c. 1—“Nicolo Pisano,” pe-sāˈno. (1200?-1278?) His architectural works are also important, he having designed churches for Padua, Venice and Florence, and a campanile for Pisa.

“Pisa,” peeˈsā. A city of Italy, west of Florence, on the river Arno. Its cathedral contains much fine art.

“Siena,” sĭ-enˈnā. A city of Tuscany, south of Florence.

“St. Dominic,” dŏmˈĭ-nik. (1170-1221.) The founder of the order of “preaching friars.”

“Bologna,” bo-lonˈyā. An Italian city at the foot of the Appenines, and north of Florence.

“Andrea Orcagna,” or-kānˈyä. (1329-1389.) The son of a Florentine sculptor who instructed him in art. His surname, Orcagna, is said to have been a corruption of L’Archagnuolo (the Archangel). His fame as a painter and architect was equal to that as a sculptor.

“San Michele,” mĭ-kaˈla. The churches of Italy are almost without exception named after the saint to which they are dedicated, as in this case, San Michele, after St. Michael.

“Giotto,” jŏtˈo. (1276-1336.) He was born near Florence, and brought up a shepherd lad. While tending his sheep it is said that a Florentine painter found him drawing on the surface of a rock, and was so convinced of his genius that he took him to Florence to be educated. His talent was so great that he was soon employed in the decoration of the church at Assisi. The details of his life are not known except that he traveled extensively through Italy, being employed in ornamenting many prominent buildings. It is as a painter that Giotto is best known, and as such he did much to awaken art from its unnatural and stiff forms, and to introduce realism. “Campanile,” kăm-pa-nēˈla.

“Ghiberti,” gee-bĕrˈtee. (1378-1455.) He learned the trade of a goldsmith, but at that time the goldsmith’s art included others, especially designing and coloring. At first Ghiberti was a fresco painter, but was called to sculpture by his success with the bronze doors over which he spent most of his life. “San Giovanni,” jo-vänˈnee.

P. 142, c. 2.—“Donatello” do-nä-tĕlˈo. (1383-1466.) He was a native of Florence. One of the Medici became his patron, and he was enabled to apply himself to art. He was a painter of merit as well as a sculptor, and the only one of the age worthy to be ranked with Ghiberti.

“Brunelleschi,” broo-nĕl-lĕsˈkee. (1377-1444.) Better known as an architect than as a sculptor. “Zenobius,” ze-noˈbi-us.

“Lucca del Robbia,” del-robˈe-ä. (1400?-1463?) He was trained to the goldsmith’s art, but took up sculpture. To him is attributed the interest in porcelain which started in Europe in the fifteenth century. His process of glazing was probably learned from the Saracens, and consisted essentially in using stanniferous (containing tin) enamel. This rendered the terra-cotta work permanent, and gave a white background.

“Uffizi,” oof-fēˈtsi. “A palace of Florence whose galleries are among the best of Europe. It contains paintings of all the principal European schools, and many famous statues. There are halls devoted to sculptures of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, drawings of the old masters, engravings, ancient bronzes, medals, gems, cameos, intaglios, the whole forming one of the finest collections in the world.” There is also a library in the palace which is rich in manuscript and letters of Italian writers.

“Verrocchio,” vāirˌrokˈke-o. (1432-1488.) Of the very little known of Verrocchio, the most interesting fact is that he was the first to take a mould of the human form to aid in designing.

“Leonardo da Vinci,” le-o-narˈdo dä vĭnˈchee. (1452-1519.) A native of Florence. In youth he was recognized as an almost universal genius and speedily surpassed all instructors. He became attached to the court of Milan in 1483 as a musician and improvisatore, and remained there until 1499, when he removed to Florence. About this time he was employed in various cities as an architect and engineer. He went to France in 1145 with Francis I., as court painter, and there died. As a sculptor we have no remains of his work. Vinci was as remarkable a thinker as artist. Hallam says of his literary fragments: “They are like revelations of physical truths vouchsafed to a single mind. The discoveries which made Galileo and Kepler and other names illustrious, the system of Copernicus, the very theories of recent geologies are anticipated by da Vinci, within the compass of a few pages.”

“Contucci,” con-tukˈche. “Sansovino,” sän-so-veeˈno. (1460-1529.) Sansovino was a Florentine, and his early works were executed there. Thence he went to Rome and worked, and in 1513 took charge of the Holy House of Loreto, at which he worked until his death.

P. 143, c. 1.—“Loreto,” lo-rāˈto. “The Holy House, in which, according to tradition, the Virgin Mary was born, the annunciation and incarnation took place, and the holy family resided on their return from Egypt. The legend is that the house was transported by angels in 1291 from Nazareth to the eastern coast of the Adriatic, and thence in 1294 to the coast of Italy. It is a rudely built brick house, 13½ feet high, with one door and one window.… The relics, treasures and offerings of different pilgrims are numerous and valuable. The house is enclosed in a marble casing, which is covered with exquisite sculptures.”