Chapter 13

Chapter 133,415 wordsPublic domain

Right: June 16, 1920. 804 Chalmers Street. See Chapter 4, especially page 79.

Note.--It is desirable not to write _st_, _nd_, or _th_ after the day of the month if the year is designated also. Right: March 3, 1919 (not March 3rd, 1919).

=b. Figures are used for numbers which cannot be expressed in a few words. The dollar sign and figures are used with complicated sums of money.=

Right: The farm comprised 3260 acres. The population of Kansas City, Missouri, was 248,381 in 1910. He earned $437 while attending school. The cost of the improvement was $1,940.25.

=c. In other instances than those specified in _a_ and _b_ numbers as a rule should be written out.= (This rule applies to numbers and to sums of money which can be expressed in a few words, to sums of money less than one dollar, and to ages and time of day.)

Right: The box weighs two hundred pounds. Xerxes had an army of three million men. I enclose seventy-five cents. He owed twelve hundred dollars. Grandfather Toland is eighty-seven years old. The train is due at a quarter past three.

Exercise:

1. For 70 pounds of excess baggage I had to pay $1.00.

2. At 2 o'clock Rice gave him the 2nd capsule.

3. The letter was sent from twenty-one Warner St. November the eleventh, nineteen hundred and eighteen.

4. Knox earned $5 a day he said; but they paid him only $0.75.

5. At 40 he owned a 2,000 acre farm and had an income of $10,000 a year.

=Syllabication=

=85a. When a word is broken at the end of a line, use a hyphen there. Do not place a hyphen at the beginning of the second line.=

=b. Words are divided only between syllables:= _depart-ment_, _dis-charge_, _ab-surd_, _univer-sity_, _pro-fessor_ (not _depa-rtment_, _disc-harge_, _abs-urd_, _unive-rsity_, _prof-essor_).

=c. Monosyllabic words are never divided:= _which_, _through_, _dipped_, _speak_ (not _wh-ich_, _thr-ough_, _dip-ped_, _spe-ak_).

=d. A consonant at the junction of two syllables usually goes with the second:= _recipro-cate_, _ordi-nance_, _inti-mate_ (not _reciproc-ate_, _ordin-ance_, _intim-ate_). Sometimes two consonants are equivalent to a single letter: _falli-ble_, _photo-graph_ (not _fallib-le_, _photog-raph_).

=e. Two or more consonants at the junction of syllables are themselves divided:= _en-ter-prise_, _com-mis-sary_, _in-car-nate_ (not _ent-erpr-ise_, _comm-iss-ary_, _inc-arn-ate_).

=f. A prefix or a suffix is usually set off from the rest of the word regardless of the rule for consonants between syllables:= _ex-empt_, _dis-appoint_, _sing-ing_, _pro-gress-ive_. But when a final consonant is doubled before a suffix the additional consonant goes with the suffix: _trip-ping_, _permit-ted_, _omis-sion_.

=g. The best usage avoids separating one or two letters (unless in prefixes like _un_ or suffixes like _ly_) from the rest of the word:= _achieve-ment_, _enor-mous_, _remem-bered_, _dyspep-sia_ (not _a-chievement_, _e-normous_, remember-ed, dyspepsi-a).

=h. The first part of a divided word should not be ludicrous or misleading:= _dogma-tize_, _croco-dile_, _de-cadence_, _metri-cal_, _goril-la_ (not _dog-matize_, _croc-odile_, _deca-dence_, _met-rical_, _go-rilla_).

Exercise:

Place a hyphen between each pair of syllables in each word of more than one syllable: _thoughtful_, _burrowing_, _thorough_, _chimney_, _brought_, _helped_, _harshnesses_, _which_, _murmur_, _superstition_, _ground_, _symmetry_, _ripped_, _compartment_, _disallow_, _obey_, _opinion_, _opportune_, _aggressive_, _intellectually_, _complicated_, _encyclopedia_, _wrought_, _electricity_, _abstraction_, _syllabication_, _punctuation_, _frustrate_, _except_, _substituting_, _distressful_.

=Outlines=

Three kinds of outlines are illustrated in this article: (a) the Topic Outline, (b) the Sentence Outline, and (c) the Paragraph Outline.

=86a. A topic outline consists of headings (nouns or phrases containing nouns) which indicate the important ideas in a composition, and their relation to each other. Conform to the following model:=

=The Lumber Problem=

Theme: The decline of our lumber supply requires that we shall take steps toward reforesting, conservation, and the use of substitutes for wood.

I The Depletion of our forests A Former abundance B Present scarcity (especially walnut, white pine, oak)

II The Causes of the depletion A Great demand 1 For building 2 For industrial expansion (ties, posts, etc.) 3 For fuel, and other minor uses B Wasteful methods of forestry

III The Remedy A Reforestation 1 Planting by individuals 2 Planting by the states 3 Extension of the present National Forest Reserves

B The prevention of waste 1 In fires, by insects, etc. 2 In cutting and sawing 3 In by-products (sawing, odd lengths, etc.)

C The use of substitutes for wood (concrete, steel, brick, stone, etc.)

=b. A sentence outline is expressed in complete sentences. Conform to the following model:=

=The Lumber Problem=

I The depletion of our forests is evident when one compares A the former abundance, with B the present scarcity (of walnut, white pine, and oak, especially).

II The causes of the depletion are: A the great demand 1 for building, 2 for industrial expansion (ties, posts, etc.), 3 for fuel and other minor uses; and B wasteful methods of forestry.

III The remedies for the depletion are: A reforestation 1 by individuals, 2 by the states, 3 by extension of the present National Forest Reserves; B the prevention of waste 1 in fires, by insects, etc., 2 in cutting and sawing, 3 in by-products (sawdust, odd lengths, etc.); and C the use of substitutes, for wood (concrete, steel, brick, stone, etc.)

=c. A paragraph outline is a series of sentences summarizing the thought of successive paragraphs in a composition. Conform to the following model:=

=The Disagreeable Optimist=

1. The present age may be called an era of efficiency, prosperity, and optimism, since efficiency has produced prosperity, and this in turn has produced "optimism"--a word recurrent in common literature and conversation.

2. The optimist is often not natural or sincere, because his thoughts are centered on keeping up an appearance of being happy.

3. He is intrusive, for he thrusts comfort upon those who wish to mourn, and repeats irritating epigrams and poems about cheer.

4. He is undiscriminating, in that he prescribes the same remedy, "good cheer," for everybody and for every condition.

5. He is sometimes harmful, because he tells us that the world is going well, when conditions need changing, and need changing badly.

=d. Mechanical details.= Indent headings that are coördinate (that is, of equal value) an equal distance from the margin. One inch to the right is a good distance for successive subordinate headings. Use Roman numerals, capital letters, Arabic numerals, and small letters to indicate the comparative rank of ideas. When a heading runs over one line, use hanging indention; that is, do not allow the second line to run back to the left-hand margin, but indent it. Make the numerals and letters (_1_, _A_, etc.) stand out prominently. The title of a theme should not be given a numeral or letter.

Faulty indention:

Sources of energy which may be utilized when the coal supply is exhausted are

I Rivers and streams, especially in mountain districts II The tides III The heat of the sun

Correct hanging indention:

Sources of energy which may be utilized when the coal supply is exhausted are

I Rivers and streams, especially in mountain districts II The tides III The heat of the sun

=e. Ideas parallel in thought should be expressed in parallel form.= Nouns and phrases including nouns are ordinarily used.

Faulty parallelism: Advantages of a garden: 1 Profitable 2 It affords good exercise 3 Gives pleasure

Right: Advantages of a garden: 1 Profit 2 Exercise 3 Pleasure

=f. Avoid faulty coördination (giving two ideas equal rank, when one should be subordinated to the other) and _vice versa_, avoid faulty subordination.=

Faulty coördination:

How Seeds Scatter

I By Wind II Some Seeds provided with parachutes III Others light, and easily blown about IV By Water V By Animals

Right:

=How Seeds Scatter=

I By Wind A Some seeds provided with parachutes B Others light, and easily blown about

II By Water

III By Animals

=g. Avoid detailed subordination. Especially avoid a single subheading when it can be joined to the preceding line, or omitted.=

Too detailed:

A The McClellan Orchard 1 Situation a On a northern slope 2 Nature of soil a Sandy 3 Kind of fruit a Apple b Cherry

Right:

A The McClellan Orchard 1. Situation: a northern slope 2. Nature of soil: sandy 3. Kind of fruit: apple and cherry

Exercise:

1. Give a title to an outline which shall include the following topics. Group the topics under two main headings, and give the headings names.

Uses of the grape The Vine The Fruit Itself How Marketed How Cultivated

2. Place in order the sentences of the following outline on "Why Keep a Diary?" Subordinate some of the headings to others.

A diary affords great satisfaction in future years.

We sometimes record in a diary information which proves useful.

A few lines a day will suffice.

A diary is not hard to keep.

We may find time for writing in our diary if we do not waste time at the table or on newspapers.

We may write in our diary just before we go to bed.

A diary will bring back the past.

We all have some moments to kill.

A diary gives us pleasure even in the present.

3. Place in order the headings of the following outline on "Ulysses S. Grant." Subordinate some of the headings to others.

Obscurity in 1861 Prominence in 1865 Patience President General Perseverance and Resolution Character The Turning Point in His Career

=Letters=

The parts of a letter are the heading, the inside address, the greeting, the body, the close, and the signature. For these parts good use prescribes definite forms, which we may sometimes ignore in personal letters, but must rigidly observe in formal or business letters.

=87a. The heading of a letter should give the full address of the writer and the date of writing. Do not abbreviate short words, or omit Street or Avenue.=

Objectionable: #15 Hickory, Omaha.

Right: 15 Hickory Street, Omaha, Nebraska.

Objectionable: 4/12/19; 10-28-'16; May 2nd, 1910.

Right: April 12, 1919; October 28, 1916; May 2, 1910.

The following headings are correct:

106 East Race Street, Red Oak, Iowa, August 4, 1916.

423 Michigan Avenue Chicago, Illinois May 20, 1918

Prescott, Arizona, June 1, 1920.

Note.--In personal letters the heading may be transferred to the end, below the signature, at the left-hand side. But it must not be so divided that the street address will appear in one place and the town and state in another.

The "closed" form of punctuation (the use of punctuation at the ends of the lines) is best until the student learns what is correct. Afterward, the adoption of the "open" form becomes purely a matter of individual taste and not a matter of carelessness or ignorance.

=b. An inside address and a greeting are required in business letters.= Personal letters contain the greeting, but may omit the inside address, or may supply it at the end of the letter.

The Jeffrey Chemical Works, 510 Marion Street, Norfolk, Virginia.

Gentlemen:

Mr. Joseph N. Kellogg 1411 Lake Street Cleveland, Ohio

Dear Mr. Kellogg:

Secretary of Rice Institute, Houston, Texas.

My dear Sir:

Greetings used in business letters are:

My dear Sir: My dear Madam: My dear Mr. Fisher: Dear Sir: Sir: Sirs: Gentlemen: Ladies:

Greetings used in personal letters are:

My dear Miss Brown: Dear Professor Ward: Dear Jones, Dear Mrs. Vincent, Dear Robert, Dear Olive,

"My dear Miss Brown" is more ceremonious than "Dear Miss Brown". As a rule, the more familiar the letter, the shorter the greeting.

A colon follows the greeting if the letter is formal or long; a comma, if the letter is familiar or in the nature of a note.

Both inside address and greeting begin at the left-hand margin. The body of the letter begins on the line below the greeting, and is indented as much as an ordinary paragraph (about an inch).

=c. The body of a letter should be written in correct style.=

=1.= Do not omit pronouns, or write a "telegraphic style".

Wrong: Just received yours of the 21st, and in reply would say your order has been filled and shipped.

Right: I have your letter of March twenty-first. Your order was promptly filled and shipped.

=2.= The idea that it is immodest to use _I_ is a superstition. Undue repetition of _I_ is of course awkward; but entire avoidance of it is silly.

=3.= Use simple language. Say "your letter"; not "your kind favor", or "yours duly received", or "yours of the 21st is at hand".

=4.= Avoid "begging" expressions which you obviously do not mean, especially the hackneyed "beg to advise".

Wrong: Received yours of the 3rd instant, and beg to advise we are out of stock.

Right: We received your order of March 3. We find that we have no more dining-room chairs B 2-4-6 in stock.

Wrong: I beg to enclose a booklet.

Right: I enclose a booklet.

Wrong: Permit us to say that prices have been advanced.

Right: The prices on our goods have been advanced.

=5.= Avoid the formula "please find enclosed". The reader will find what is enclosed; if you use "please", let it refer to what the reader shall do with what is enclosed.

Wrong: Enclosed please find 10 cents, for which send me Bulletin 58.

Right: I enclose ten cents, for which please send me Bulletin 58.

=6.= Avoid unnecessary commercial slang: _On the job_, _A-1 service_, _O.K._, _your ad_, _popular-priced line_, _this party_, _as per schedule_.

=7.= Get to the important idea quickly. In applying for a position, do not beat around the bush, or say you "wish to apply" or "would apply". Begin, "I make application for ...", "kindly consider my application for ...", or "I apply ..."

=8.= Group your ideas logically. Do not scatter information. A letter applying for a position might consist of three paragraphs: Personal qualifications (age, health, education, etc.); Experience (nature of positions, dates, etc.); References (names, business or profession, exact street address). Finish one group of ideas before passing to the next.

=9.= Do not monotonously close all letters with a sentence beginning with a participle: _Hoping to hear from you ..._, _Asking your coöperation ..._, _Awaiting your further favors ..._, _Trusting this will be satisfactory ..._, _Wishing you ..._, _Thanking you ..._. The independent form of the verb is more emphatic (see 42); _I hope to hear from you ..._, _We await further orders ..._, _We ask coöperation ..._.

=d. The close= should be consistent in tone with the greeting. It is written on a separate line, beginning near the middle of the page, and is followed by a comma. Only the first word is capitalized. Preceding expressions like "I am", "I remain", "As ever", (if they are used at all) belong in the body of the letter.

Right: I thank you for your courtesy, and remain

Yours sincerely, Robert Blair

Right: I shall be grateful for any further information you can give me.

Yours truly, Florence Mitchell

In business letters the following forms are used:

Yours truly, Very truly yours, Yours respectfully,

In personal letters the following are used:

Yours truly, Yours sincerely, Sincerely yours, Cordially yours,

=e. The outside address should follow one of the forms given below:=

Note.--An abbreviation in an address is followed by a period. Punctuation is also correct, but not necessary, after every line (a period after the last line, and a comma after the others).

A married woman is ordinarily addressed thus: Mrs. George H. Turner. But a title belonging to the husband should not be transferred to the wife. Wrong: Mrs. Dr. Jenkins, Mrs. Professor Ward. Right: Mrs. Jenkins, Mrs. Ward. Reverend Mr. Beecher is a correct address for a minister; not "Rev. Beecher". If a title of respect is placed before a name (Professor, Dr., Honorable), it is undesirable to place another title after the name (Secretary, M.D., Ph.D., Principal, Esq.).

=f. Miscellaneous directions.= Writing should be centered on the page, not crowded against the top, or against one side. Letter paper so folded that each sheet is a little book of four pages is best for personal correspondence. Both sides of such paper may be written on. The pages may be written on in any order which will be convenient to the reader. An order like that of the pages in a printed book (1, 2, 3, 4) is best.

Business letters are usually written on one side only of flat sheets 8-1/2 by 11 inches in size. The sheet is folded once horizontally in the middle, and twice in the other direction, for insertion in the envelope.

=g. A business letter should have, in general, the following form:=

1516 South Garrison Avenue. Carthage, Missouri, May 14, 1918.

J. E. Pratt, General Superintendent, The Southwest Missouri Railroad Company, 1012 North Madison Street, Webb City, Missouri.

Dear Sir:

I apply for a position as mechanic's assistant in the electrical department of your shops. I am nineteen years old, and in good physical condition. On June 6 I shall graduate from Carthage High School, and after that date I can begin work immediately.

I have had no practical experience in electrical work. But I have for two years made a special study of physics, in and out of school. I worked last summer in the local garage of Mr. R. S. Bryant. In addition, I have become familiar with tools in my workshop at home, so that I both know and like machinery.

For statements as to my character and ability, I refer you to R. S. Bryant, Manager Bryant's Garage; Mr. Frank Darrow (lawyer), 602 Ninth Street; W. C. Barnes, Superintendent of Schools; and C. W. Oldham, Principal of the High School--all of this city.

Respectfully yours, Howard Rolfe

=h. Formal notes and replies are written in the third person (avoiding _I_, _my_, _me_, _you_, _your_) and permit no abbreviations except _Mr._, _Mrs._, _Dr._ =

Mrs. Clarence King requests the company of Mr. Charles Eliot at dinner on Friday, April the twenty-fourth, at six o'clock.

102 Pearl Street, April the seventeenth.

In accepting an invitation, the writer should repeat the day and hour mentioned, in order to avoid a misunderstanding; in declining an invitation, only the day need be mentioned. The verb used in the reply should be in the present tense; not "will be pleased to accept", or "regrets that he will be unable to accept"; but "is pleased to accept", or "regrets that circumstances prevent his accepting".

Mr. Charles Eliot gladly accepts the invitation of Mrs. King to dinner on Friday, April the twenty-fourth, at six o'clock.

514 Poplar Avenue, April the eighteenth.

=Paragraphs=

=88a. The first lines of paragraphs are uniformly indented, in manuscript, about an inch; in print, somewhat less. After a sentence, the remainder of a line should not be left blank, except at the end of a paragraph.=

=b. The length of a paragraph is ordinarily from fifty to three hundred words, depending on the importance or complexity of the thought.= In exposition, the paragraphs should be long enough to develop every idea thoroughly. Scrappy expository paragraphs arouse the suspicion that the writer is incoherent, or that he has not given sufficient thought to the subject. Short paragraphs are permissible, and even desirable, in the following cases:

1. In a formal introduction to the main body of a discourse, or in the formal conclusion. (In some instances the paragraph may consist of a single sentence.)

2. In the body of a composition, when a brief logical transition between two longer paragraphs is necessary.

3. In short compositions on complex subjects, where space forbids the development of each thought on a proper scale. (But, as a rule, the student should limit his subject to a few simple ideas, each of which can be developed fully.)

4. In newspapers, where brevity and emphasis are required. (But the student should not take the journalistic style as a model.)

5. In description or narration meant to be vivid, vigorous, or rapid.

6. In dialogue.

=c. In representing dialogue, each speech, no matter how short, is placed in a separate paragraph.=

Right:

"Listen!" he said. "There was a noise outside. Didn't you hear it?"

"No," I whispered. It was dark in the room, except for a faint light at the window, and I felt my way cautiously to his side. "What is it? Burglars?"

"I believe it is."

"I can't hear anything."

"Listen! There it is again."

"Pshaw!" I had to laugh aloud. "Thompson's cow has got into the garden again."

Note that a slight amount of descriptive matter may be included in a paragraph with the direct discourse, the only requirement being that a change of speaker shall be indicated by a new paragraph.

When special emphasis is desired, a quotation may be detached from a preceding introductory statement.

Right: The speaker turned gravely about, and facing the front row, he said slowly and solemnly:

"Small boys should be seen and not heard."

In exceptional cases a long, rapid-fire dialogue may, for purposes of compression, be placed in one paragraph. Dashes should then be used before successive quotations to indicate a change of speaker.