Chapter 9

It will now be convenient to treat of the two Testaments together, _i.e._, _the canon of the Bible_. The canons of both have been considered separately to the end of the third century; they may be henceforward discussed together. We proceed, therefore, to the Bible-canon of the fourth century, first in the Greek Church and then in the Latin. The Council of Laodicea (A.D. 363), at which there was a predominant semiarian influence, forbad the reading of all _non-canonical_ books. The 59th canon enacts, that “private psalms must not be read in the Church, nor uncanonized books; but only the canonical ones of the New and Old Testament.” The 60th canon proceeds to give a list of such. All the books of the Old Testament are enumerated, but in a peculiar order, somewhat like the Septuagint one. With Jeremiah is specified _Baruch_, then the Lamentations and _Epistle_. The prophets are last; first the minor, next the major and Daniel. In the New Testament list are the usual seven Catholic epistles, and fourteen of Paul, including that to the Hebrews. The Apocalypse alone is wanting. Credner has proved that this 60th canon is not original, and of much later date.(227)

The Apostolic Constitutions give a kind of canon like that in the 59th of Laodicea. After speaking of the books of Moses, Joshua, Judges, Kings, Chronicles, those belonging to the return from the captivity, those of Job, Solomon, the sixteen prophets, and the Psalms of David; our Acts, the epistles of Paul, and the four gospels are mentioned. It is remarkable that the Catholic epistles are not given. That they are indicated under Acts is altogether improbable. The Antiochian Church of that time doubted or denied the apostolicity of these letters, as is seen from Theodore, Cosmas, and others. Hence, their absence from these Constitutions, which are a collection belonging to different times; the oldest portion not earlier perhaps than the third century.(228)

Cyril of Jerusalem, who took part in the Council of Laodicea,(229) gives a list “of the divine Scriptures.” The books of the Old Testament are twenty-two, and the arrangement is nearly that which is in the English Bible. With Jeremiah is associated “Baruch and the Epistle.” All the New Testament books are given except the Apocalypse. The list agrees very nearly with that of Eusebius, by taking the latter’s “controverted” writings into the class of the “generally received.”(230) The writer insists on the necessity of unity in the Church upon the subject, and forbids the reading of writings not _generally received_. None but these are allowed. Yet he refers to Baruch (iii. 36-38) as _the prophet;_(231) and in adducing the testimonies of the prophets for the existence of the Holy Spirit, the last he gives is Daniel xiii. 41, 45. Sirach iii. 21, 22 is cited;(232) Wisdom is quoted as Solomon’s (xiii. 5);(233) the song of the three children is used (verse 55)(234) with verses 27, 29;(235) and Daniel (xiii. 22, 45) is quoted.(236)

In Athanasius’s festal epistle (365 A.D.) the archbishop undertakes “to set forth in order, the books that are canonical and handed down and believed to be divine.” His list of the Old Testament nearly agrees with Cyril’s, except that Esther is omitted and Ruth counted separately, to make out the twenty-two books. He adds, “there are other books not canonical, designed by the fathers to be read by those just joining us and wishing to be instructed in the doctrine of piety;” _i.e._, the Wisdom of Solomon and the Wisdom of Sirach, and Esther and Judith and Tobit, and the Doctrine of the Apostles so called, and the Shepherd; “those being _canonical_, and these being _read_, let there be no mention of apocryphal writings,” &c. The New Testament list is the same as Cyril’s, with the addition of the Apocalypse.(237) He quotes several of the apocryphal books in the same way as he does the canonical. Thus he introduces Judith (viii. 16) with “the Scripture said;”(238) and Baruch (iii. 12) is cited as if it were Scripture.(239) Wisdom (vi. 26) has the epithet Scripture applied to it.(240) Sirach (xv. 9) is introduced with “what is said by the Holy Spirit.”(241) Baruch (iv. 20, 22) and Daniel (xiii. 42) are referred to in the same way as Isaiah.(242) Tobit (ii. 7) has “it is written” prefixed to it.(243) Canonical and apocryphal are mentioned together; and similar language applied to them.

Eusebius of Caesarea cites Wisdom as a _divine oracle_;(244) and after adducing several passages from Proverbs, subjoining to them others from the same book with the introductory formula “these are also said to be the same writers,” he concludes with “such is the scripture.”(245) Sirach is cited as Solomon’s along with various passages from Proverbs.(246) After quoting Baruch, he says, “there is no need to appeal to the divine voices, which clearly confirm our proposition.”(247) The additions to Daniel are also treated as Scripture.(248)

Basil of Caesarea(249) had a canon agreeing with that of Athanasius. Along with the usual books reckoned as belonging to the canon, he used the apocryphal productions of the Old Testament. Thus the book of Wisdom (i. 4)(250) is quoted by him. So are Sirach (xx. 2);(251) Baruch, (iii. 36)(252) called Jeremiah’s; Judith (ix. 4);(253) and Daniel (xiii. 50).(254)

Gregory of Nazianzus(255) puts his list into a poetical form. In the Old Testament it agrees with Athanasius’s exactly, except that he mentions none but the canonical books. Like Athanasius, he omits Esther. In the New Testament he deviates from Athanasius, by leaving out the Apocalypse, which he puts among the spurious.(256) He does not ignore the apocryphal books of the Old Testament, but quotes Daniel xiii. 5.(257)

Amphilochius of Iconium(258) gives a metrical catalogue of the Biblical books. The canon of the Old Testament is the usual one, except that he says of Esther at the end, “some judge that Esther should be added to the foregoing.” He notices none of the apocryphal books. His New Testament canon agrees with the present, only he excludes the Apocalypse as _spurious_; which is given as the judgment of the majority. He alludes to the doubts that existed as to the epistle to the Hebrews, but regards it as Pauline; and to the number of the catholic epistles (seven or three).(259) The concluding words show that no list was universally received at that time.

Epiphanius(260) follows Athanasius in his canon. As to the number of the Old Testament books, he hesitates between twenty-two and twenty-seven; but the contents are the same. At the end of the twenty-seven books of the New Testament, Wisdom and Sirach are mentioned as “divine writings;” elsewhere they are characterized as “doubtful.”(261) His practice shows his sentiments clearly enough, when Sirach (vii. 1) is introduced with “the Scripture” testifies(262); vii. 9 is elsewhere quoted(263); Wisdom (i. 4) is cited as Solomon’s;(264) Baruch (iii. 36) is introduced with, “as the Scripture says,”(265) and Daniel (xiii. 42) is quoted with, “as it is written.”(266) He mentions the fact that the epistles of Clement of Rome were read in the churches.(267)

Didymus of Alexandria(268) speaks against 2 Peter that it is not in the canons.(269)

Chrysostom(270) does not speak of the canon; but in the New Testament he never quotes the last four catholic epistles or the Apocalypse. All the other parts he uses throughout his numerous works,(271) including the Apocrypha. Thus he introduces Wisdom (xvi. 28) with “Scripture says.”(272) He quotes Baruch (iii. 36, 38);(273) and Sirach (iv. 1.).(274)

Didymus of Alexandria(275) cites Baruch (iii. 35) as Jeremiah,(276) and treats it like the Psalms.(277) Daniel (xiii. 45) is also quoted.(278) He says of Peter’s Second Epistle that it is not in the canon.

Theodore of Mopsuestia(279) was much freer than his contemporaries in dealing with the books of Scripture. It seems that he rejected Job, Canticles, Chronicles, and the Psalm-inscriptions; in the New Testament the epistle of James, and others of the catholic ones. But Leontius’s account of his opinions cannot be adopted without suspicion.(280)

The canon of Cyril of Alexandria(281) does not differ from Athanasius’s. Like other writers of the Greek Church in his day he uses along with the canonical the apocryphal books of the Old Testament. He quotes 1 (iii.) Esdras (iv. 36) with “inspired Scripture says.”(282) Wisdom (vii. 6) is introduced with, “according to that which is written.”(283) In another place it has the prefix “for it is written” (i. 7);(284) and is treated as Scripture (ii. 12).(285) Sirach (i. 1) is cited.(286) Baruch also (iii. 35-37) is introduced with, “another of the holy prophets said.”(287)

The catalogues of the Old Testament contained in the manuscripts B, C, and א need not be given, as they are merely codices of the Septuagint, and have or had the books canonical and apocryphal belonging to that version. The list of the New Testament books in B is like that of Athanasius. Imperfect at the end, the MS. must have had at first the Epistles to Timothy, Titus, Philemon, and the Apocalypse. C (cod. Ephraemi rescriptus) has fragments of the New Testaments, which show that it had originally all the present books in the same order as Athanasius’s. א or the Sinaitic manuscript has the Epistle of Barnabas and the Shepherd of Hermas, in addition to the New Testament.

The progress made by the Greek Church of the fourth and former part of the fifth century, in its conception of the canon seems to be, that the idea of ecclesiastical settlement, or public, legal, definitive establishment was attached to the original one. A writing was considered canonical when a well-attested tradition put it among those composed by inspired men, apostles or others; and it had on that account a determining authority in matters of faith. Books which served as a rule of faith and were definitively set forth by the Church as divinely authoritative, were now termed _canonical_. The canon consisted of writings settled or determined by ecclesiastical law.(288) Such was the idea added to the original acceptation of canon. To canonical were opposed apocryphal writings, _i.e._, _heretical_ and _fabricated_ ones; while an intermediate class consisted of those read in the churches, which were useful, but not decisive in matters of belief. Another advance in the matter of the canon at this period was the general adoption of the Hebrew canon, with a relegation of the Greek additions in the Septuagint to the class _publicly read_.(289) Yet doubts about the reception of Esther into the number of the canonical books were still entertained, though it was one of the Jewish canon; doubtless on account of its want of harmony with Christian consciousness. And the catholic epistles which had been doubted before, Jude, James, Second Peter, were now generally received. But there was a division of opinion about the Apocalypse.

We come to the period of the Latin, corresponding to that of the Greek Church which has just been noticed. Augustine(290) gave great attention to the subject, laboring to establish a complete canon, the necessity of which was generally felt. According to him the Scriptures which were received and acknowledged by all the churches of the day should be canonical. Of those not universally adopted, such as are received by the majority and the weightier of the churches should be preferred to those received by the fewer and less important churches. In his enumeration of the forty-four books of the Old Testament, he gives, after Chronicles, other histories “which are neither connected with the order” specified in the preceding context, “nor with one another,” _i.e._, Job, Tobit, Esther, Judith, the two books of the Maccabees, and Esdras. Wisdom and Ecclesiasticus, he thinks, should be numbered among the prophets, as deserving of authority and having a certain likeness to Solomon’s writings.(291) He says of the Maccabees that this “Scripture has been received by the Church not uselessly, if it be read or heard soberly.”(292) The famous passage in the treatise on Christian doctrine, where he enumerates the whole canon, is qualified by no other; for though he knew the distinction between the canonical books of the Palestinian Jews and the so-called apocryphal ones, as well as the fact of some New Testament writings not being received universally, he thought _church-reception_ a sufficient warrant for canonical authority. Hence, he considered the books of the Maccabees canonical, because so received by the Church; while he says of Wisdom and Sirach that they merited _authoritative_ reception and numbering among the _prophetic_ Scriptures.(293) Of the former in particular he speaks strongly in one place, asserting that it is worthy to be venerated by all Christians as of divine authority.(294) But he afterwards retracted his opinion of the canonical authority of Sirach.(295) He raises, not lowers, the authority of the so-called apocryphal books which he mentions. He enumerates all the New Testament books, specifying the Pauline epistles as fourteen, and so reckoning that to the Hebrews as the apostle’s; but he speaks of it elsewhere as an epistle about which some were uncertain, professing that he was influenced to admit it as canonical by the authority of the Oriental churches.(296) In various places he speaks hesitatingly about its Pauline authorship.

In 393, the African bishops held a council at Hippo where the canon was discussed. The list of the canonical Scripture given includes, besides the Palestinian one, Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus, Tobit, Judith, and the two books of Maccabees. The New Testament canon seems to have agreed exactly with our present one.(297) The Council of Carthage (397) repeated the statute of its predecessor, enumerating the same books of the Bible as canonical.(298) Augustine was the animating spirit of both councils, so that they may be taken as expressing his views on the subject.

Jerome(299) gives a list of the twenty-two canonical books of the Old Testament, the same as that of the Palestinian Jews, remarking that some put Ruth and Lamentations among the Hagiographa, so making twenty-four books. All besides should be put among the Apocrypha. Wisdom, Sirach, Judith, Tobit, the Shepherd are not in the canon. The two books of Maccabees he regarded in the same light.(300) But though Jerome’s words imply the apocryphal position of these extra-canonical books, he allows of their being read in public for the edification of the people, not to confirm the authority of doctrines; _i.e._, they belong to “the ecclesiastical books” of Athanasius. His idea of “apocryphal” is wider and milder than that of some others in the Latin Church. It has been conjectured by Welte,(301) that the conclusions of the African councils in 393 and 397 influenced Jerome’s views of the canon, so that his later writings allude to the apocryphal works in a more favorable manner than that of the _Prologus galeatus_ or the preface to Solomon’s books. One thing is clear, that he quotes different passages from the Apocrypha along with others from the Hebrew canon. In his letter to Eustochius, Sirach