The Campaign of Marengo, With Comments
CHAPTER V.
GENERAL COMMENTS.
While the Army of Reserve was assembling near Lake Geneva, only a few people at Paris knew that Bonaparte himself intended to take command of it. In fact, a provision in the constitution of the Year VIII. did not permit a consul to command an army in person. But, as Bonaparte himself said, it did not prevent his being present with the army; moreover, this constitutional provision was then regarded by the French people, and even by the Senate and Tribunate of France, as having no binding effect on Bonaparte. Nevertheless, the First Consul did not wish to violate it openly, and, accordingly, adopted the subterfuge of making General Berthier the nominal commander in chief, retaining in his own hands the entire conduct of the campaign. To all intents and purposes, therefore, Bonaparte was the real commander of the Army of Reserve.
Having assembled the Army of Reserve at Lake Geneva, he was in a position where, if the necessity should arise, he could march to the assistance either of Moreau in Germany or of Suchet on the Var. Had Melas succeeded in forcing the Var, Bonaparte would doubtless have marched south along the west side of the French Alps in order to unite the Army of Reserve with Suchet's forces for an attack against Melas. The strategical skill of Bonaparte appears in this arrangement. Though he expected to cross the Alps, yet up to the last moment his army was so situated that he was prepared for any contingency that might arise.
Though the campaign of Marengo, as planned and executed by him, was a bold and hazardous undertaking, yet a careful analysis of the operations shows that nearly all of them were marked by extreme caution. It will be found, too, that his strategy was almost perfect for accomplishing his ends. In fact one of the great merits of Napoleon was that he knew how to produce a maximum effect with a minimum force. The whole theatre of war was an open book to him. He saw just where the battle should be fought in order to produce the greatest results. Though the Austrians in this campaign numbered nearly a quarter-million of men, and stretched from the Gulf of Genoa to the Main River, yet Bonaparte was able, while still at Paris, to picture in his mind the whole strategical situation, and to indicate Stokach in Germany and the Stradella Pass in Italy, as being the two most important points within this immense theatre of operations. These two places were the keys of the territory occupied by the two Austrian armies. Here the greatest results could be produced with the smallest efforts. Here, in each case, a victory could be obtained with the least loss to the French.
Bonaparte's caution is seen in the fact that he would not set out to cross the Alps until Moncey's corps was well on its way towards Italy. Before beginning the movement, he wished to be certain that he would receive this re-enforcement, and to make sure of his communications with Switzerland. He knew that he might be attacked in the plains of Piedmont before he could reach Milan, and might lose his communications by way of the Great St. Bernard Pass. If, however, Moncey succeeded in reaching Italy, Bonaparte would then have uninterrupted communications with the great stronghold of Switzerland.
Again: his caution is seen in the fact that, after descending the Alps with the Army of Reserve, he immediately took measures to concentrate his forces, instead of crossing the Po at Chivasso and of marching directly to the relief of Masséna. He knew that a great battle was inevitable, yet safety was his first object. He wished to gain a position where he could bring a strong force on to the battle-field, and where, if defeated, he could retreat without losing his army. In fact, throughout the campaign, he kept a watchful eye upon his communications. It was his rear that gave him the greatest anxiety. It is always so with the great masters of war. "While the distant spectator," says Hamley, "imagines a general to be intent only on striking or parrying a blow, he probably directs a hundred glances, a hundred anxious thoughts, to the communications in his rear, for one that he bestows on his adversary's front." Notwithstanding the fact that Napoleon seemed always to take great chances in his military career, and seemed often to stake everything on the fate of a single battle, yet a careful analysis of his campaigns shows that no commander has ever looked with more anxiety to his lines of retreat than did this great master of war. At Austerlitz, where he allowed the enemy to envelop his right and cut off his retreat on Vienna, and where he was so certain of success that he issued a proclamation in advance explaining the manoeuvre by which victory would be obtained, yet even here he had provided for a retreat through Bohemia in case of defeat.
This campaign was indeed a bold one; but it must be remembered that the very boldness of Bonaparte was one of the principal causes of his success. By descending the Alps into Italy upon the Austrian rear, he surprised his adversary and caused him to tremble for his communications. By this means he struck terror into the heart of Melas even before a battle had been fought. No sooner had French troops reached the valley of the Po than Melas was compelled to change his whole plan of campaign. He had then to defend himself against Bonaparte. He could no longer think of invading France. By this bold movement Bonaparte snatched the initiative from his adversary and compelled him to fight on the defensive. In war, the boldest course is often the safest. "The greatest soldiers have always been the most daring."
From the discussion in the preceding chapter, it is evident that in this campaign Bonaparte allowed his boldness to outrun his caution. He attempted to grasp too much. This characteristic of Napoleon, here exhibited for the first time in his military operations, was in after years one of the principal causes of his fall. In his subsequent career he fought Spain and Portugal on one side and nearly the whole of Europe on the other. Though the greatest exemplar of concentration that the world has ever known, yet at times he divided his forces when he should have made peace on one side, and have concentrated on the other. In the Russian campaign, too, he was overconfident. He was not satisfied with ordinary victories or with ordinary results. His early successes were so marvellous that he began to feel that he could conquer in the face of all Europe, and in spite of the elements themselves. And yet this very boldness, coupled with a caution that seldom failed him, was one of the secrets of his numerous victories during so many years of war.
The crossing of the Alps with the Army of Reserve was undoubtedly a hazardous undertaking, yet it was so carefully planned in all its details that it was completely successful. During the operations of Masséna in Italy, and of Moreau in Germany, Bonaparte had displayed marvellous energy in hastening the preparations for crossing the great chain of the Alps. In this famous passage, nothing, however trivial, that could contribute to the success of the operation was beneath the attention of Bonaparte. Referring to the activity and care displayed by the First Consul at this time, Thiers, in his "History of the Consulate and Empire," writes as follows:--
"Himself toiling day and night, corresponding with Berthier, who was organizing the divisions of infantry and cavalry; with Gassendi and Marmont, who were organizing the artillery; with Marescot, who was reconnoitring the whole line of the Alps; he urged every one to exertion, with that headlong energy and ardour which sufficed him to carry the French from the banks of the Po to the banks of the Jordan, from the banks of the Jordan to those of the Danube and Borysthenes. He would not leave Paris in person until the last moment, not wishing to abandon the political government of France, and leave the field clear to intriguers and conspirators for a longer time than was absolutely necessary. Meanwhile, the divisions ordered from La Vendée, from Brittany, from Paris, and from the banks of the Rhone, traversed the widespread territory of the Republic, and the heads of their columns were already appearing in Switzerland. The depots of some corps were still at Dijon, besides some conscripts and volunteers, sent thither to give credence in Europe to the opinion that the army of Dijon was a pure fable, destined solely to alarm Melas. Up to this moment everything had gone well; the illusion of the Austrians was complete. The movement of the troops advancing towards Switzerland was little noticed, because the corps were so much dispersed, that they passed for re-enforcements sent to the army in Germany.... To such a point had he carried his foresight as to establish saddlers' workshops at the foot of the defile, for the repair of the artillery harness. On this apparently trivial matter he had already written several letters; and I mention this circumstance for the instruction of those generals and governments to whom the lives of men are intrusted, and who too often, through indolence or vanity, neglect such particulars. Nothing, in fact, that can contribute to the success of operations, or to the safety of soldiers, is below the genius or rank of commanding officers."
One of the secrets of Napoleon's success in war was the fact that he bestowed great care on all military matters. Whether his operations were simple or complex; whether his attention was called to the ration of a single soldier, or to the subsistence of a hundred thousand men; whether his mind was occupied with the trivial details of routine duty, or was evolving the grandest strategic conceptions, he was the same painstaking, orderly, careful man. "His plan," says Napier, referring to Napoleon's projects in the war with Spain, "embraced every probable chance of war, and even provided for the uncertain contingency of an English army landing upon his flanks at either end of the Pyrenean frontier. Neither his power nor his fortune nor the contempt he felt for the military power of the Spaniards made him remiss. The conqueror of Europe was as fearful of making false movements before an army of peasants as if Frederick the Great had been in his front."
In the campaign of Marengo Bonaparte displayed excellent judgment in selecting his subordinates. However much he may have failed in this respect in his subsequent career, certainly at this time his success was due in great measure to the fact that he selected Masséna to command the Army of Italy, and Moreau to command the Army of the Rhine.
Masséna was peculiarly fitted both by birth and character to perform the duty required of him. Born at Turbia near Nice, he was familiar with every foot of country bordering on the Gulf of Genoa. Moreover, he had fought in the same theatre of operations under Bonaparte in 1796-97. In action he was cool, clear-headed, obstinate, and brave. When the battle was at its height, and the struggle fierce and desperate, then his genius shone forth with great brilliancy. Probably no other soldier of France could have made such an heroic struggle at Genoa. Though he had some traits of character that stained his reputation and dimmed his glory, he was nevertheless a great soldier, perhaps the greatest of all those remarkable men who were afterwards made marshals of France. His characteristics were thus set forth by Napoleon at St. Helena:--
"Masséna was a man of superior talent. He generally, however, made bad dispositions previous to a battle, and it was not until the dead fell around him that he began to act with that judgment which he ought to have displayed before. In the midst of the dying and the dead, of balls sweeping away those who encircled him, then Masséna was himself--gave his orders and made his dispositions with the greatest _sang froid_ and judgment.... By a strange peculiarity of temperament, he possessed the desired equilibrium only in the heat of battle; it came to him in the midst of danger. The sound of the guns cleared his ideas and gave him understanding, penetration, and cheerfulness. He was endowed with extraordinary courage and firmness. When defeated he was always ready to fight again as though he had been the conqueror."
Though Moreau failed to appreciate thoroughly the strategical situation in Germany, nevertheless the First Consul showed wisdom in appointing him to command the Army of the Rhine. Moreau was familiar with this theatre of operations, and possessed the confidence of the soldiers under him. Moreover, he was brave and cautious, and wonderfully cool and collected on the battle-field. Though he failed to do all that he might have done, yet he was generally successful, and, on the whole, justified the confidence bestowed on him by the First Consul.
In this connection it is worthy of remark that Desaix was ranked by Napoleon as one of the greatest of his subordinates. Had he not been killed at Marengo, he would undoubtedly have been made one of Napoleon's marshals. At St. Helena Napoleon spoke of him as follows:--
"Of all the generals I ever had under me, Desaix and Kléber possessed the greatest talents--especially Desaix; as Kléber only loved glory inasmuch as it was the means of procuring him riches and pleasures, whereas Desaix loved glory for itself, and despised everything else. Desaix was wholly wrapped up in war and glory. To him riches and pleasure were valueless, nor did he give them a moment's thought. He was a little, black-looking man, about an inch shorter than I am, always badly dressed, sometimes even ragged, and despising comfort or convenience. When in Egypt, I made him a present of a complete field-equipage several times, but he always lost it. Wrapt in a cloak, Desaix threw himself under a gun, and slept as contentedly as if he were in a palace. For him luxury had no charms. Upright and honest in all his proceedings, he was called by the Arabs _the just Sultan_. He was intended by nature for a great general. Kléber and Desaix were a loss irreparable to France."
It is worthy of remark that many of the generals that fought in the French armies during these operations afterwards became marshals of Napoleon. In the Army of Italy there were Masséna, Soult, and Suchet; in the army of Reserve, Lannes, Victor, Murat, Berthier, Marmont, and Davoust; and in the Army of the Rhine, St. Cyr, Moncey, and the immortal Ney, "the bravest of the brave."
The knowledge that Bonaparte displayed of his adversaries' doings in this campaign is indeed wonderful. From reports sent him by Suchet, Masséna, and Moreau, and from information obtained from spies, he had not only a knowledge of the positions occupied by the Austrian armies, but, in addition, was accurately informed as to their numbers and plans of operations. A single example will suffice to illustrate the accuracy of his information, and his remarkable intuition, before the beginning of hostilities, as to the movements and plans of Melas. It will be remembered that while still at Paris he wrote to Masséna as follows:--
"The enemy will debouch upon your right in the direction of Genoa, on your centre in the direction of Savona, and probably on the two points at once. Refuse one of the two attacks, and throw yourself with all your forces united, upon one of the enemy's columns.... In that broken country, if you manoeuvre well, with 30,000 men you may give battle to 60,000; in order to carry 60,000 light-armed troops into Liguria, Melas must have 90,000, which supposes a total army of 120,000 men at least."
Compare now the prediction of Bonaparte with what happened. Melas _had_ one hundred and twenty thousand men. He advanced against Masséna in two columns: one, numbering twenty-five thousand men, divided into two parts, advanced on Genoa; the other, forty thousand strong, advanced on Savona. The movements of Melas were carried out exactly as Bonaparte had predicted. In the letter to Masséna, the Austrian plan, as well as the numbers with which Melas was about to attack the Army of Italy, were set forth with wonderful accuracy. When it is remembered that at this time Bonaparte was at Paris, and that the great chain of the Alps intervened between him and the Austrians in Italy, no one can fail to be impressed by the foresight of Bonaparte and the accuracy of this prediction made before the event. Wellington once said that he had been trying all his life to find out what the other fellow was doing over the hill. Bonaparte, at Paris, knew what Melas was doing over the hill.
In the campaign of 1796-97 in Italy, Bonaparte had shown himself a consummate master of tactics and of strategy. In the campaign of Marengo he exhibited, in addition to these qualities, great organizing power. When he returned from Egypt, civil war existed in certain parts of France, the finances were in a deplorable state, and the French armies had been everywhere defeated. In a few months, under his leadership, all was changed. He crushed out the civil war, placed the finances on a firm basis, sent re-enforcements to the Army of the Rhine, and organized the Army of Reserve. Referring to this period, Alison says:--
"The sudden resurrection of France, when Napoleon assumed the helm, is one of the most extraordinary passages of European history.... After the fall of the Committee of Public Safety, the triumph of France centered in Napoleon alone; wherever he did not command in person, the greatest reverses were experienced. In 1795 the Republicans were defeated by Clairfait on the Rhine; in 1796 by the Archduke Charles in Germany. In 1799 their reverses were unexampled both in Italy and Germany; from the 9th Thermidor to the 18th Brumaire, a period of about five years, the fortunes of the Republic were singly sustained by the sword of Napoleon and the lustre of his Italian campaigns. When he seized the helm in November, 1799, he found the armies defeated and ruined; the frontier invaded both on the sides of Italy and Germany; the arsenals empty; the soldiers in despair, deserting their colours; the Royalists revolting against their government; general anarchy in the interior; the treasury empty; the energies of the Republic apparently exhausted. Instantly, as if by enchantment, everything was changed; order reappeared out of chaos, talent emerged from obscurity, vigour arose out of the elements of weakness. The arsenals were filled, the veterans crowded to their eagles, the conscripts joyfully repaired to the frontier, La Vendée was pacified, the exchequer began to overflow. In little more than six months after Napoleon's accession, the Austrians were forced to seek refuge under the cannon of Ulm, Italy was regained, unanimity and enthusiasm prevailed among the people, and the revived energy of the nation was finally launched into a career of conquest."
At the beginning of the campaign of Marengo, Kray's army, numbering one hundred and twenty thousand men, occupied western Germany. The army of Melas, one hundred and twenty thousand strong, occupied northwestern Italy; a British corps of twelve thousand was in Minorca, and a British fleet in the Gulf of Genoa.
To oppose the forces of the allies, Bonaparte had three armies: the Army of the Rhine, numbering one hundred and thirty thousand men, was facing the Austrians in Germany; the Army of Italy, forty thousand strong, was along the Apennines and Maritime Alps; and the Army of Reserve, numbering forty thousand, was assembling near Lake Geneva. It will thus be seen that the allies had two hundred and fifty-two thousand men to oppose the two hundred and ten thousand under the First Consul; and that they possessed the additional advantage of being supreme on the sea.
Such was the situation in the spring of 1800. On the 5th of April Melas began active operations along the Apennines. On the 14th of June the campaign ended at Marengo. In two months and ten days the French, guided by the genius of Bonaparte, had compelled Kray to seek safety in the fortified camp of Ulm, and had defeated Melas and gained possession of northern Italy. These great results were due to Bonaparte. It was he that crossed the Alps. In his brain was born the strategy that led to victory.
In this campaign Bonaparte calculated carefully every movement; he left nothing to chance. Though fortune favored him in many ways, nevertheless his success was due to his genius and to his mastery of his profession. Strategically these operations were almost perfect, yet they were faulty in execution. "The campaign of Marengo," says William O'Connor Morris, "at least in design, was one of the most dazzling of Napoleon's exploits in war. The plan of issuing from Switzerland by a double movement in the rear of the enemy in Swabia and Italy was perhaps equal to any formed by Hannibal; but the execution of it was far from perfect. Moreau completely failed to cut off Kray. Napoleon made a distinct mistake in marching into the plain of Marengo, and he exhibited in this instance a fierce resolve to encounter his adversary at any risk, which cost him dear on more than one occasion. The most striking feature of this part of his career is the restoration of order in France, her sudden and rapid rise out of misfortune, and the revival of her military power; and though this was largely due to the energy and resource of a great nation not often quelled by disaster, it should perhaps be mainly ascribed to Napoleon's genius." At this time Bonaparte was thirty years of age; he was vigorous in mind and body. He was ambitious, and had a massive determination to succeed. He had a will which no obstacle could daunt, a mind original, bold, profound, quick, and penetrating. His eye pierced the depths and reached the heights of things. With a marvellous intuition he was able at times to foresee just what course his adversaries would take. So accurate was his information, so profound his knowledge of military matters, that he was often able to predict what, under certain conditions, would happen. "He had," says Morris, "a faculty of organisation perhaps never equalled, and a power of calculation, a force of insight and industry, and a capacity of mastering details, which Nature has seldom bestowed on man." Moreover, he had made a profound study of the campaigns of the great commanders, and had read many books of history, the perusal of which, says Lamartine, "changes theories into actions, and ideas into men." In short, he was a consummate master of war. The fact that he was a great organizer, a great tactician, and a great strategist, is the real reason why he was so successful in war. Among all other great soldiers of the world, it would be difficult to select a single one who possessed in so marked a degree all these qualities. As an organizer, he was not excelled by either Cæsar or Alexander; as a tactician he was equal to Marlborough or Frederick; as a strategist, he surpassed every soldier of ancient or of modern times. Take him all in all he was, perhaps, the foremost soldier of the world.
* * * * *
Twenty-one years after this campaign, the Emperor Napoleon lay dying at St. Helena. His thoughts were with his army. During a long delirium, while a fierce storm was raging on the island, he was heard to say: "mon fils ... l'armée ... Desaix." These were his last words. Perhaps, amidst the shock of the billows and the battle-like roar of the storm, the great captain believed himself once more with Desaix on the tumultuous field of Marengo.
INDEX.
Abercromby, General, commands British corps in Minorca, 22.
Alesia, battle of, 86.
Alexander the Great, compared with Napoleon, 232.
Alison, Archibald, sets forth Napoleon's organizing ability, 228, 229.
Allies, plans of, seemed reasonable, 25; advantages possessed by, 229.
Alps, description of, 18; Swiss, Tyrolese, French, and Maritime, 19; passes of, 19.
Apennines, description of, 19.
Archduke Charles, ablest soldier in Austria, 23, 50; relieved of command, 23; opposes Napoleon in 1809, 38; quotation from, 45; his views sound, 50; should have been allowed his way, 51; had constructed an intrenched camp at Ulm, 94; reference to, 107; defeats the Republicans, 228.
Arcole, battle of, 17, 76; campaign of, 33.
Army of Italy, struggles heroically, 18; strength and position of, 21, 55, 79-80, 229; line of communication of, 21; necessity for its remaining along the Apennines, 46; in a destitute condition, 55; is cut in two, 63; its active operations terminate, 72; nothing done to improve condition of, 88; sufferings of, 89.
Army of Reserve, the third army, 18; scattered throughout France, 22; destination of, to be kept secret, 28; caricatured 29; concentrates, 29; will cross the Alps, 29; could re-enforce either Moreau or Masséna, 31, 216; not imaginary, 74; strong enough at vital point, 90; crosses the Alps, 142; passes Fort Bard, 145; strength and position of, 229.
Army of the Rhine, re-enforcement sent to, 18; size of, and position of, 20, 229.
Aulic Council, description of, 23; reference to, 42; errors of, 51; ignorant of military matters, 51; reasons for failure of, 52; gives orders to Kray, 111; informs Melas that Army of Reserve is a mere fiction, 148; sends despatches to Melas, 156, 162.
Austerlitz, battle of, 39.
Austria, wages war against France, 15; successful on the land, 16, 41; assisted by England, 16; aided by Russia, 16; had almost reconquered Italy, 17; spies of, gather at Dijon, 29; directs Melas to take offensive, 41; not aware of existence of Army of Reserve, 42; should take the offensive in Germany, 45; might have avoided error, 46.
Austrians, must outnumber the French to succeed, 43; discipline and morale of, 54.
Bard, fort of, 143; is surrendered to the French, 150.
Bassano, battle of, 76.
Berthier, General, is sent forward, 142; directs operations along the Po, 155; made nominal commander in chief, 216; became a marshal, 226.
Bethencourt, descends the Simplon, 146; arrives at Arona, 150.
Black Forest, description of, 92; mountain system of, 110.
Blucher, opposes Napoleon in 1814, 33.
Bochetta, pass of, 19.
Bonaparte, First Consul, returns to France from Egypt, 15; collects Russian prisoners, 16; detaches Russia from alliance, 16; his absence in Egypt, 16; his victories in 1796-97, 17; became First Consul, 17; prepared for war, 17; magic of his name, 17; his energy, 17; his chance of success small, 22; had full control of military operations, 22; his achievements in Italy and Egypt, 22; his plans, 25; first plan, 25; rivalry between him and Moreau, 26; Victory his object, 27; wishes to dazzle the French people, 27; second plan, 27; will emulate Hannibal, 30; could re-enforce Masséna or Moreau, 31; would have had the advantage of interior lines, 32; defeated the Austrians at Arcole and Rivoli, 33; as the situation appeared to him, 34, 52; could use either France or Switzerland as a base, 34; could decide the fate of the Austrians in a single battle, 36; could compel the Austrian Emperor to make peace, 36; his plan difficult, 36; his advantages in Italy, 39; important for him to deceive Melas, 40; could assemble his forces and decide the fate of Italy by a single battle, 40; important that he should take the offensive, 44; writes to Masséna, 57, 85, 226; must hurry across the Alps, 66; sends Moreau instructions, 67; advances, 67; enters Milan, 70; methods of, in the treatment of fortresses, 76; might have been obliged to change his plan, 83; his plan, 84-85; the problem before him, 87-88; if necessary, would sacrifice Masséna, 90; nature was his re-enforcement, 90; marches on to victory, 91; submits a plan to Moreau, 95; tried to convince Moreau, 97; replies to General Dessoles, 97; makes an agreement with Moreau, 98; urges Moreau to hasten, 100; his plan compared to that of Moreau, 117, 119, _et seq._; makes preparations to cross Rhine, 123; his chances of success in Germany, 134, 135; anxiously awaits developments, 136; leaves Paris, 136; prepares to cross the Alps, 137; his plan, 137, 138; his knowledge of his adversaries' positions, 139; is surprised, 144; crosses the Alps, 145; studies his maps, 145; hurries to Fort Bard, 145; marches on Milan, 149; seizes crossings of the Po, 150; delays at Milan, 150; receives news of Masséna's surrender, 156; arrives at Montebello and prepares for battle, 158; advances towards Marengo, 159; detaches Desaix, 160; loses touch of his adversary, 161; arrives on the battle-field of Marengo, 166; retreats, 167; is defeated, 167; forms a new line of battle, 170; forces the Austrians back to Marengo, 171; receives surrender of Melas, 172; his operations worthy of careful study, 176; gained northern Italy, 177; the plans which he might have adopted, 178; deceived Melas, 179, 180; is not deterred from his undertaking, 181; his reasons for taking this course, 181, 182; commits an error, 184, 199; the problem before him, 184, 195; his reasons for not marching through Switzerland, 187; criticisms of, 190, 191; his critical manoeuvre, 192-194; his strong position, 195, 196, 197; anxious for fear Melas might escape, 199; in a state of doubt, 199; risks too much, 200, 220; courses that he might have taken, 201-203; his chances of success on another field, 203; his brilliant strategy, 204; his reasons for advancing to Marengo, 206-208; was surprised and deceived, 207-209, 213; hastens the return of Desaix, 210; defeated the Austrians in detail, 213; his merit at Marengo, 214; fortune favored him, 214, 215; his operations faulty in execution, 215; was the real commander of the Army of Reserve, 216; was prepared for any contingency, 217; his caution, 217-219; his boldness, 219; his activity and care, 221, 222; his judgment in selecting his subordinates, 223; his knowledge of his adversaries' doings, 226; his brain the birthplace of victory, 230; his success due to his genius, 230; his characteristics, 230-232.
Bourrienne, extract from his "Memoirs of Napoleon," 139.
Brenner, pass of, 26.
Cæsar, compared with Napoleon, 232.
Campaign of 1814, example from, 33.
Campaign of 1796-97, example from, 33; reference to, 47, 227.
Carnot, minister of war, sent to Moreau's headquarters, 108.
Castiglione, battle of, 17, 76.
Chabran, General, commands a corps under Bonaparte, 142; crosses the Alps, 142.
Champeaux, General, commands cavalry brigade at Marengo, 164, 170.
Clairfait, General, defeats the Republicans, 228.
Col di Cadibona, pass of, 19.
Col di Ormea, pass of, 19.
Col di Tenda, pass of, 19.
Comments, on the strategical situation, 30, _et seq._; on the operations of Masséna and Melas, 72, _et seq._; on Moreau's operations in Germany, 109, _et seq._; on Bonaparte's operations in Italy, 173, _et seq._; general, 216, _et seq._
Danube, river, description of, 20.
Davoust, became one of Napoleon's marshals, 226.
Dego, battle of, 48.
Desaix, General, arrives at the French headquarters, 159; marches on Novi, 160; returns and advises Bonaparte to fight, 170; assaults Zach, 171; is killed, 172; marches to the sound of the cannon, 211, 214; compared with Grouchy, 211; how ranked by Napoleon, 225; mentioned by Napoleon on his death-bed, 232.
Dessoles, General, Moreau's chief of staff, 97; gives advice to Bonaparte, 97.
Duhesme, General, commands a corps under Bonaparte, 142; marches on Milan, 149.
Dumas, quotation from his life of Napoleon, 208.
Elsnitz, General, proceeds against Suchet, 63, 147; drove Suchet back, 65; is ordered to quit the Var, 70; quits the Var, 153; is defeated and retreats, 154; commands reserve at Marengo, 164, 165.
Engen, battle of, 104; loss at, 105.
England, wages war against France, 15; is successful on the sea, 16; spies of, gather at Dijon, 29; army of, 75.
France, stands alone against coalition, 15; in a deplorable state, 17; civil war in, 17.
Frederick the Great, might have failed, 49; reference to, 223; compared with Napoleon, 232.
French, occupy a more favorable position, 43.
Front to a flank, definition of, 193.
Genoa, a strongly fortified place, 56; provisions scarce in, 58; description of, and its fortifications, 61; siege of, 63, _et seq._
Grouchy, Marshal, compared with Desaix, 211.
Haddick, General, occupies valley of Aosta, 146, 147; attacks at Marengo, 163.
Hamley, General, his remarks on the operations in Germany, 115, 118, 121; quotation from, 129, 195, 201, 219.
Hannibal, Bonaparte follows in footsteps of, 27, 30, 131, 143.
Hart, Colonel, quotation from, 197; his remarks on the errors at Marengo, 210.
Hohenzollern, General, advances on Bochetta Pass, 59; is repulsed, 59.
Italy, might be reconquered at Vienna, 26.
Jomini, General, quotation from, 37, 52, 179; his remarks on the passage of a river, 124.
Kaim, General, watches the passes of the Alps, 58; holds Susa, 146, 147; attacks at Marengo, 163; follows General Zach, 169.
Keith, Admiral, commands British fleet in Gulf of Genoa, 22.
Kellerman, General, commands cavalry brigade at Marengo, 164, 170; attacks Austrian cavalry, 171.
Kienmayer, General, guards defiles of Black Forest, 93; remains in Kinzig Valley, 102; descends the Danube, 105.
Kléber, General, how ranked by Napoleon, 225.
Kray, Marshal, commanded Austrian army, 20; was to remain on the defensive, 23; was deceived, 29; his army separated from that of Melas, 30; must lose his communications if defeated, 35; his army widely dispersed, 37; gave Bonaparte an advantage, 43; lacked military ability, 49; commands main body in Germany, 94; hears of Moreau's movements, 100; re-enforces Kienmayer, 100; moves on Loffingen and Zollhaus, 102; appreciates his faulty position, 103; attempts to unite his forces at Stokach, 103; at Engen, 104; unites his forces at Mosskirch, 105; crosses the Danube, 106; marches on Ulm, 107, 108; his strength and losses, 107; position of his troops, 110; commits an error, 111, 112, 114; faulty arrangement of his forces, 111-117; outgenerals Moreau, 130; position of his army, 229.
Lamartine, quotation from, 231.
Lannes, General, commands a corps under Bonaparte, 142; crosses the Alps, 142; is checked at Fort Bard, 144; passes the fort, 145; defeats Haddick, 146; captures Pavia, 150; crosses the Po, 155; fights battle of Montebello, 157; secured the title of "Duke of Montebello," 158; at Marengo, 164, _et seq._; was badly shattered, 213; became a marshal, 226.
Lecourbe, General, commands Moreau's right wing, 93; marches on Stokach, 103; is victorious, 104; delays there to await Moreau's operations, 104; captures Memmingen, 107.
Lincoln, Abraham, virtues of, 90.
Lodi, battle of, 17.
Lonato, battle of, 76.
Macdougall, Colonel, criticizes operations in Germany, 116.
Mack, General, his army captured by Napoleon, 38.
Mantua, fortress of, location of, 72.
Marengo, campaign of, 88, 173; plain of, 163; battle of, 163, _et seq._; opposing forces at, 212.
Marescot, General, reports on the passes of the Alps, 137.
Marlborough, Duke of, compared with Napoleon, 232.
Marmont, General, became a marshal, 226.
Masséna, General, takes command of Army of Italy, 18; to remain on the defensive, 25; had the advantage of a strong position, 42, 43; could not have driven Melas through Italy, 48; brings about better discipline, 55; holds Genoa, 56; his difficulties, 57-58; failed to appreciate the advantages of Bonaparte's plan, 58; in a precarious situation, 60; was surrounded, 60; not discouraged, 60; his plan, 61, 64; attacks General Ott, 62; advances towards Nice, 62; is again repulsed, 62; heroic deeds of, 63; resolves to hold Genoa at all hazards, 63; urges the First Consul to hasten, 63; has hope, 64; strength of his forces, 64; fought fiercely, 65; is partially successful, 65; fights on amidst famine and death, 67, 68; would not surrender, 68, 69; surrenders, 71, 176; joins Suchet, 71; firm as a rock, 72; the problem before him, 79; plans that he might have adopted, 82-86; was justified in not carrying out Bonaparte's orders, 83; received no re-enforcements, 89; hard pressed at Genoa, 89, 184; was doubtful of the outcome, 211; his characteristics, 223, 224; became a marshal, 226.
Maurice, Colonel, his remarks on surprise and concealment, 180.
Melas, General, commanded Austrian army in Italy, 21; will attack the Army of Italy, 24; deceived, 29; was doomed to defeat, 29; separated from Kray, 30; could not know where to expect the French, 39; difficult for him to drive back the French, 43; many advantages offered him, 46; could have held Masséna in check, 48; lacked military ability, 50; his plan, 56; advances against Masséna, 58, 229; cuts in two the Army of Italy, 59; sends orders to Ott, 63; hears of Bonaparte's movements, 70; is in consternation, 70; sends orders to Elsnitz and Ott, 70, 153, 186; his purpose, 72; his errors, 73-80; assaulted again and again, 76; his methods in treatment of fortresses, 76; doubted existence of Army of Reserve, 77; accomplished almost nothing, 79; could force Masséna to capitulate, 86; makes every effort to capture Genoa, 147; receives notice of passage of Alps, 148; marches on Turin, 148; is surprised, 148; forms a junction with Kaim's and Haddick's commands, 149; is deceived, 151; finally comprehends Bonaparte's plan, 152; his plan, 152, 153; marches on Alessandria, 153; calls a council of war, 162; begins battle of Marengo, 163, 164; sends cavalry to Acqui, 165, 210, 212; attacks French with fury, 165; makes a great effort, 167; defeats Bonaparte, 167; returns to Alessandria, 168; surrenders, 172; was weak at all points, 174; causes of his defeat, 174-177; his success in Italy, 176; had to abandon invasion of France, 185; in doubt as to Thurreau's strength, 194; knew he must conquer or lose all, 204, 205; his situation unfavorable, 209; failed to occupy Marengo, 209; commits another error, 209; number of his forces, 212; outnumbered Bonaparte, 213; defeated French in detail, 213; position of his army, 229.
Metz, battle of, 86.
Millesimo, battle of, 48.
Minorca, English corps in, 71.
Miollis, General, defends Genoa, 62.
Moncey, General, leads a corps into Italy, 67; arrives at Milan, 70, 155; became a marshal, 226.
Mondovi, battle of, 48.
Monnier, General, commands a division at Marengo, 166, 170.
Mont Cenis, pass of, 19.
Montenotte, battle of, 17, 48.
Moreau, General, commands Army of Rhine, 18; rivalry between Bonaparte and him, 26; his talents, 27; position of his army, 34; his army strengthened, 55; slow to begin, 66; advances against Kray, 67; executes vigorously his manoeuvres, 67; defeats Kray and detaches a corps, 67; commands reserve, 93; objects to First Consul's plan, 95, 98; proposes a plan of his own, 96, 97; declares he will not serve under Bonaparte, 98; is cautious and slow, 99; begins his movement, 100; crosses Rhine, 101; is joined by Lecourbe, 102; his plan successfully executed, 102; at battle of Engen, 104; marches on Mosskirch, 105; at battle of Mosskirch, 105; marches on Ulm, 106; his strength and loss, 107; orders 15,000 men into Italy, 108, 109; was generally successful, 108; commits errors, 117-121, 134; his plan compared to that of Bonaparte, 122, 124, _et seq._; his characteristics, 118, 224, 225; discussion of his operations 125, _et seq._; his faulty movements, 126-132; outgeneralled by Kray, 130.
Morris, William O'Connor, his remarks on Marengo, 230; on Napoleon, 231.
Mosskirch, battle of, 105, 106.
Murat, General, commands a corps under Bonaparte, 142; marches on Milan, 149; crosses the Po, 156; became a marshal, 226.
Napier, Colonel, remarks on Napoleon's projects, 222, 223.
Napoleon I., his victories in 1814, 33; his passages of the Danube, 38; opposed to Archduke Charles, 38; greatest captain of modern times, 38; in the Ulm campaign, 38; seized Austrian capital, 38; meets Austrian and Russian armies at Austerlitz, 39; quotation from regarding fortresses, 77; never allowed himself to be besieged, 87; peculiarity of his system of war, 131-135; quotation from, 132, 201; his remarks on the operations in Italy, 189, 190; his wrong use of the expression, "lines of operations," 189; on the art of war, 197; his theory of war, 197; his skill in strategy and war, 198; is outnumbered at Marengo, 198; might never have fallen, 211; kept an eye on his communications, 218; his boldness carried him too far, 220; bestowed great care on military matters, 222; his projects in Spain, 223; his remarks on Masséna, 224; same on Desaix and Kléber, 225; fortunes of Republic sustained by his sword, 228; was a great organizer, 231; perhaps the foremost soldier of the world, 232; the Emperor, his last words, 232.
Nelson, Lord, dealt the French a terrible blow in the battle of the Nile, 16.
Ney, General, "the bravest of the brave," became a marshal, 226.
Nile, battle of, 16.
Ott, General, advances on Genoa, 58; is successful, 59; takes command of Austrians at Genoa, 63; attacked three sides of the city, 65; failed to continue the struggle, 70; is ordered to raise siege of Genoa, 70; besieges Genoa, 147; receives surrender of Masséna, 154, 186; marches on Placentia, 154; is defeated at Montebello, 158; retreats on Alessandria, 158; commands Austrian left at Marengo, 164; marches on Ghilina, 169; retreats, 171.
O'Reilly, General, commands vanguard at Marengo, 163.
Paul I., Russian Emperor, felt bitter towards Austria, 15; flattered by Bonaparte, 16.
Po, river of, description of, 20.
Pontebba, pass of, 26.
Prince de Reuss, commands Kray's left wing, 94, 111.
Prussia, army of, 75.
Rhine, river, description of, 20.
Rivoli, battle of, 17, 77; campaign of, 33.
Roveredo, battle of, 76.
Royalists, might support allies, 24; sympathize with England and Austria, 42.
San Georgio, battle of, 60.
Schwarzenberg, General, advances on Paris in 1814, 33.
Simplon, pass of, 19.
Soult, General, commands centre of Army of Italy, 56; falls back to Genoa, 59; commands one of Masséna's columns, 62; became a marshal, 226.
Starry, General, commands Kray's right, 93; remains in valley of Murg, 102; descends the Danube, 105.
St. Bernard, Great, pass of, 19, 137; Little, pass of, 19, 137.
St. Cyr, General, commands Moreau's centre, 93; crosses Rhine at Brisach, 100; marches on St. Blazien, 101; at Engen, 104; marches on Ulm, 106; his movement criticised, 120; became a marshal, 226.
Ste. Suzanne, General, commands Moreau's left wing, 93; crosses the Rhine, 100, 101; recrosses, 101; marches on Ulm, 107.
St. Gothard, pass of, 19.
Stokach, battle of, 103, 104.
Stradella, pass of, 138.
Suchet, General, commands left of Army of Italy, 56; falls back towards Nice, 59; marches eastward from Nice, 62; again falls back, 62; rallies his troops, 65; follows the Austrians, 71; defeats Elsnitz and marches to Acqui, 153, 154; fights along the Var, 176; might have marched to Marengo, 211; became a marshal, 226.
Suwaroff, General, fights in Italy and Switzerland, 15; retreats into valley of the Danube, 15.
Switzerland, base of operations, 25; separates two Austrian armies, 32; possession of, advantageous to Bonaparte, 40.
Thiers, historian, quotation from, 89, 144, 145, 221.
Thurreau, General, guards the Mont Cenis Pass, 55, 79, 80, 90; could fall on the flank of the Austrians, 80; crosses the Alps, 142; attacks Kaim, 146; is held in check, 155; at Susa, 194, 195.
Turenne, his remarks on mistakes in war, 201.
Tyrol, highway of, in possession of the Austrians, 31.
Ulm, intrenched camp of, 94, 110.
Var, river of, effort for success should have been made on, 75.
Victor, General, commands a corps under Bonaparte, 142; marches on Milan, 149; crosses the Po, 155; re-enforces Lannes at Montebello, 158; arrives at Marengo, 160; at battle of Marengo, 164, _et seq._; was crushed, 213; became a marshal, 226.
Von der Goltz, General, his remarks on writing history, 15; his views regarding fortresses, 86-87.
Vukassovich, General, watches the St. Gothard and Simplon passes, 147; is defeated, and retreats to the Mincio, 150.
Wagner, Major, his definition of _containing force_, 32.
Waterloo, battle of, reference to, 211.
Wellington, Duke of, saying of, 227.
Zach, General, chief of staff, succeeds Melas in command at Marengo, 168; advances against Bonaparte, 169, 171; is taken prisoner, 171.
END
NAPOLEON BONAPARTE'S FIRST CAMPAIGN.
With Comments by Herbert H. Sargent, First Lieutenant Second Cavalry, United States Army. Crown 8vo. 231 pages, with maps. $1.50.
Since its publication this work has received the enthusiastic praise of Press and Public, and has taken an important, and in many respects a unique, place in the ranks of Napoleonic contributions.
The peculiar conciseness and lucidity of the style, and the discriminating avoidance of technical and unessential details, have invited the attention of a non-military public; while the preservation of the strategic essence of the history has insured for the work a permanent interest to the student of the art of war. The book has been officially recognized by the United States Government,--the War Department having purchased one hundred copies for distribution in the service; and it has received the hearty commendation of the commander in chief of the British army.
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_The Nation, New York._
The work is so clearly done, and the sketch maps so well illustrate the successive stages of the campaign, that the general reader can follow the story with satisfaction, and understand wherein Bonaparte was really great.
_The Outlook, New York._
So carefully and accurately written is this volume, that the _London Times_ pays our compatriot the compliment of begging him to continue his history through the other campaigns of Napoleon.
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Our author has been unusually successful in presenting his subject in such a plain and easily comprehended fashion, that if we know nothing about the strategy of the battle-field we follow him with increasing curiosity and pleasure.
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No one, whether he be civilian or soldier, can, after the perusal of this small volume, fail to realize vividly the stupendous genius of Napoleon Bonaparte as manifested even in the earliest years of his service in the field.... Valuable as is this book as a treatise on strategy, its worth in this respect is far surpassed by its value as a life-like portrayal of Napoleon, not only the strategist and tactician, but the general "heaven born."
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End of Project Gutenberg's The Campaign of Marengo, by Herbert H. Sargent