Part 4

Space is filled with a subtle ether, consisting of atoms in motion. These atoms are elastic—a property which they possess in virtue of being able to change their form, though not their volume, during impact and to recover it again. Their form is spherical, they are all equal, and their diameter is very small compared with that of the atoms of ponderable matter, and also with their general distance apart. This ether is, therefore, an exceedingly rare medium. When the atoms impinge against each other they rebound like billiard balls, and in all their motions they obey the common mechanical laws of inertia and impact, and no other laws whatever. They cannot act upon each other at a distance, and therefore no attractive or repulsive force exists between them.

If only one of these atoms were to exist in space it would move in a straight line with uniform velocity until it reached the limit of space; that is to say, the boundary by which creation is limited—the boundary which separates entity from nonentity. Here, being elastic, it would be reflected, and would then follow another rectilinear course until it again encountered in another point the boundary of space, where it would be again reflected; and so on for ever!

If we imagine space filled with an enormous number of such atoms it will follow that _at every point in space there will be small parallel currents of them moving in all directions_. Their distance apart being great in proportion to their size, two contrary currents will not annihilate each other, but by far the greater number of atoms in one current will pass those in the other current without impact. Those atoms which do impinge against opposite atoms, at various angles of incidence, will rebound and join other currents which are moving in their new direction.

The state of things above described constitutes what is called “mobile equilibrium;” for what one current loses by meeting another in an opposite direction will be imparted to surrounding currents, and these, in their turn, will give back equal to what they have acquired, so that compensation will be made, and thus the laws of conservation of force, and of _vis viva_, will be satisfied.

The velocity with which the atoms move is enormous, and millions of times greater than the velocity of light.

The reader will observe that there is a vast difference between the mobile equilibrium of this ether and the equilibrium of air or gas confined in a closed vessel. The reason why particles of a gas appear to repel each other is because the ethereal undulations of heat are vibrating between them. By reducing the temperature and increasing the pressure gases may be liquified or solidified, in which states no repulsion exists between their particles.

All ponderable matter is porous; its ultimate atoms are spheres much larger than the atoms of ether, and much farther apart; the currents of ether can, therefore, pass through a ponderable body in all directions.

When a current of ether passes through a ponderable body some of the atoms of ether strike the atoms of the body and rebound; the current, after passing through the body, will, therefore, be weakened, according to the number of its atoms which have rebounded in altered directions—that is to say, according to the number of atoms of the body which have been struck by atoms of ether. The greater the mass of a body the greater will be the weakening of the currents of ether which have passed through it. A current of ether weakened by passing through a body will gradually regain its original strength by passing through space, since it will be continually reinforced by other atoms moving in the same direction as itself.

A single ponderable atom in the midst of currents of ether will be in equilibrium under their action, because it will be struck equally in all directions.

But the atoms of a ponderable body will be put into vibratory motion by the passage through it of currents of ether; these internal motions may enable us to account for light, heat, magnetism, &c.

When two ponderable bodies exist in space, and currents of ether pass through them, the two bodies will be impelled towards each other, because the currents of ether that are between them and tend to keep them apart are weakened by having passed through the bodies, and are, therefore, weaker than the currents which impel them towards each other. This explains what has been called the “attractive force of gravity.”

It will be observed that since currents of ether pass through the bodies in all directions, the weakened currents between the bodies will be included within a sort of conical space. The law of attraction according to the inverse square of the distance is thus accounted for.

Since the weight of a body is the same, no matter how it is turned about, it follows that the ultimate atoms of all ponderable matter must be spherical. It follows also from the hypothesis that all the spherical atoms of ponderable matter are equal, and that there is, chemically speaking, but one simple substance—the apparent variety depending upon the mode of aggregation of the atoms into molecules.

Crystals are formed by arranging these spheres in the same way as you may arrange marbles or pile up cannon balls.

There is nothing in the hypothesis to interfere with the undulating theory of light, or with any theory that reposes strictly upon observed facts; but this we may discuss on a future occasion.

I need hardly say that it is in consequence of their great velocity that the atoms of ether acquire sufficient momentum to communicate sensible motion to ponderable matter.

Ponderable matter may possibly be composed of the aggregation of ethereal atoms; but M. Leray thinks not. He can see no good reason why it should be so.

Cohesion and chemical affinity may be explained on this hypothesis. Its leading feature is that it explains how such natural phenomena as do not involve vital or mental action may be explained on the simplest mechanical principles, and without involving that “bugaboo,” _action at a distance_. Of course, Dr. Frankland’s ideas of “bonds,” “active and latent atomicities,” &c., are inadmissible on this hypothesis.

The demonstrations are rigorously given, and the work involves a good deal of high mathematics. It is utterly impossible to do justice to the theory in the above brief sketch of it. The theorems of Euclid, if thus stated, would many of them appear improbable and absurd. The work itself can be procured from M. Gauthier Villars, 55, Quai des Grands Augustins, Paris, price three francs. It is copiously illustrated with woodcuts. A new edition has just appeared.

Some idea of the distance between the atoms of ponderable matter, when in the form of gas, may be gathered from a remark of Dr. Mann’s in his _Guide to a Knowledge of Life_, at page 13, where he says:—

“It can be shown to be highly probable that the ultimate atoms of gases are at least one hundred times their own diameter asunder even when those gases are held in confined vessels.”

The earth and the moon are, therefore, about three times as near together, in proportion to the diameter of the earth, as two atoms of a gas are, if the above remark be true.

In Sir Isaac Newton’s corpuscular theory of light the atoms emitted from the sun were supposed to follow one another at a distance of about a thousand miles apart! Under such circumstances the impact of two atoms of intersecting rays of light would be a comparatively rare event.

M. Leray asserts that the law of gravitation is only an approximation to the truth, and that it is modified by the volumes of bodies. The proof of this he expects will be found some day in the motions of comets, which rapidly change their volume.

Elective affinity he supposes to depend upon the different forms of crystals, two crystals which present plane faces towards each other being more easily pushed together by the atoms of ether than two crystals in which a solid angle or an edge of one is presented to a plane face of the other.

The sun, planets, fixed stars, nebulæ, &c., are, of course, perpetually riddled through and through, in all directions, by currents of ether. That is why the heavenly bodies gravitate towards each other, as explained in a preceding paragraph.

With respect to reflection at the boundary of space, it is an idea which grows upon you the more you think of it. Enormous as creation is it is impossible to conceive of its having _no_ limit. What, then, is beyond that limit?—Nothing. Not even space in which matter can exist; no _place_ even for matter. On reaching the boundary which separates an entity (for space is an entity) from a nonentity matter must be reflected, if elastic; or it must roll for ever against the boundary of space, if inelastic. This conclusion seems to me inevitable; there is no escape from it.

In the new edition of M. Leray’s book he modifies the theory which I have endeavoured briefly to explain in the foregoing paragraphs by supposing that, instead of one ether, there are two in a state of mixture, the second being a grosser fluid, and its atoms larger than those of the other. It is these larger atoms of the grosser fluid which, by their transversal vibrations, produce the phenomena of light, heat, &c. These larger atoms do not suffer the same swift motion of translation through space as the smaller atoms of the subtler fluid. They have no greater motion of translation than ponderable atoms have.

It may be asked—What is the difference between ponderable and imponderable matter, and why are the atoms of ether imponderable? To this query a satisfactory answer is given; but I must refer the reader to the book for it. Were I to enter upon any demonstrations an entire number of this Journal would not contain half that could be said.

I have proved in an independent manner, and different from that of Père Leray, that two equal, penetrable spheres of ponderable matter, existing in space at a distance apart which is large in proportion to their diameters, will be impelled towards each other by the impact of ethereal matters, according to a law which is approximately that of the inverse square of the distance. When the spheres are brought to within a much shorter distance of each other the law ceases to be approximately true. The law of gravitation may, therefore, be only approximately true for particles of matter at a great distance apart in proportion to their diameters. The only observations which appear to confirm the law are those which have been made upon the heavenly bodies; and here we have a case of a distance apart many times the diameters of the bodies, even between satellites and their primaries.

But before any one can seriously accept this new hypothesis a vast deal more thought and study must be bestowed upon it than I have yet had time to give it.

I will send the demonstration referred to for insertion in a future number of this Journal if our Editors think fit. The subject is not foreign to photography, but intimately connected with it as a science.

According to the new hypothesis, new definitions must be given of MASS and DENSITY. According to M. Leray, “the mass of an atom is equal to its volume, and the mass of a body is equal to the sum of the volumes of its atoms.”

“If we call M the mass of a body, and V its apparent volume, the fraction M/V is the absolute density of the body. The absolute density is, therefore, unity for an atom, and varies from 0 to 1 for all bodies.”

If two bodies have the same apparent volume, their densities are proportional to their masses.

I have been looking through a capital French work on Chemistry, published in 1870, by M. Alfred Riche, lecturer at the Polytechnic School at Paris. He uses the old notation and table of equivalents; but strongly advises a change to the new, which he explains very nicely, and pretty much as our lecturer has done. Whenever the atomic weight of an element is given according to the new table its symbol has a bar drawn across it. Something of this sort should always be observed, in order to avoid confusion between the old and new formulæ.

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I have just received a letter from Mr. J. R. Johnson, containing a most beautiful carbon print. He asks me what I think of it. My reply is simply this—that it is the most wonderfully fine print I have ever seen upon paper.

THOMAS SUTTON, B.A.

_Redon, January 26, 1872._

THE RECENT SOLAR ECLIPSE.—NEW PHOTOGRAPHIC VENTURE AT THE ANTIPODES.—PHOTOGRAPHY IN THE BUSH.

The most interesting event, in a photographic point of view, which I have to report is the departure of the scientific expedition to observe the total eclipse of the sun on the 12th of this month. The place selected for the observations is Cape Sidmouth, some three hundred miles south of Cape York, in Northern Australia.

The expedition has been organised by the Royal Society of Victoria, and the expense is met by private subscriptions, largely aided by grants from the several Colonial Governments. The Queensland Government steamer was also placed at the disposal of the party free of charge.

The various instruments necessary for the observations were sent from England by the Royal Society; but, owing to my absence from Sydney at the time the expedition sailed, I am unable to give any details of the arrangements for taking photographs of the eclipse. I hope, however, soon to be able to give a full description of the results.

The party consists of more than thirty gentlemen, the different branches of science being well represented; for botanists and geologists are taking advantage of the trip to make investigations in their own departments. For the astronomical observations Victoria sends her Government Astronomer, Mr. Ellery, at the head of a large staff of observers, and a photographer, Mr. Walters; while New South Wales sends Mr. Russell, the present, and the Rev. W. Scott, the late, Government Astronomer, and Mr. Merlin, of the “American and Australasian Photographic Company.” From this double staff we may expect a large number of photographs and other valuable results.

The steamer left Sydney on the 27th of November, and will return by Christmas, before which time no news will reach us of the doings of the party. We shall, therefore, look forward to their return with much interest.

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Professional photographers here do not now devote their attention so exclusively to portraiture as formerly. The “American and Australasian Photographic Company” has announced its intention of photographing every house in the Australasian colonies! I suppose it finds it a profitable speculation, as it has already photographed a considerable number of towns, house by house. The day for each place is previously advertised, so that the inhabitants may put themselves and their dwellings in holiday attire. The photographs are to some extent used as advertisements.

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I lately came across a photographer in the far interior, some 500 or 600 miles from Sydney. He had already travelled a still greater distance from Adelaide, in South Australia, from whence he had started on his tour. He was plying his vocation at the various sheep and cattle stations, and was apparently well patronised. I saw several of his groups of aboriginals, which were very good. The black fellows were highly delighted with their portraits, and were very anxious that copies should be sent to their friends in other districts.

_Sydney, December 1, 1871._ E. B. DOCKER, M.A.

P.S.—The unfortunate wreck of the mail steamer has deprived us of the journals for this month.—E. B. D.

CARBOLIC ACID. _To the_ EDITORS.

GENTLEMEN,—My attention has been called to an article in your issue of the 19th January, under the head “Correspondence,” by Mr. Thomas Sutton, containing several statements with reference to carbolic acid which it would be wrong to allow to remain uncontradicted.

First: he says carbolic acid is by no means a good antiseptic, and is very poisonous, and then refers to persons being lately poisoned by its _fumes_ at Wolverhampton.

As to its poisonous nature: It is, of course, a poison if taken internally in quantity, but is not a virulent one taken in any reasonable or probable quantity. It is, perhaps, not out of place to say that if it should be taken internally in a concentrated form, by misadventure, large doses of castor and sweet oil immediately administered will materially counteract the poisonous effect of the acid. The fumes of the acid are perfectly harmless and may be breathed with impunity.

Mr. Sutton is labouring under a false impression with regard to the case to which he alludes at Wolverhampton, of which the following is the correct account:—Two dogs (not human beings) were _supposed_ to have died from inhaling the fumes of carbolic acid emanating from a disinfecting powder sprinkled over the floor of a workshop in Wolverhampton, and, the following is an extract from the report of the chemist who examined one of the dogs:—“The disinfecting powder was not a carbolic acid powder, but an imitation; for it contained nothing but lime impregnated with tar, and was entirely innocent of any harm to the animals. Strychnine, however, was discovered in considerable quantity in most parts of the viscera and in the blood. I calculated that at least one grain and a-quarter of this poisonous alkaloid had been administered to the animal by some evil-disposed person or persons unknown.” Thus much for the poisoning of human beings lately at Wolverhampton by the fumes of carbolic acid.[4]

Footnote 4:

The cattle show at the Agricultural Hall, Islington, has for the two last years been successfully disinfected and kept sweet with carbolic acid.

Had Mr. Sutton ever seen carbolic acid fumigation, or read about carbolic acid, he would not have made an assertion so utterly groundless. The writer has himself many times been for two or three days together in a room containing a large excess of carbolic acid fumes without experiencing any injurious effects.

With regard to the action of carbolic acid on the teeth, if Mr. Sutton will refer to an article in the _British Journal of Dental Science_ for March, 1871, he will find “it is a powerful antiseptic, and invaluable for the arrest of any decay or decomposition of the teeth.”

Mr. Sutton has quoted from a long letter of Dr. Dougall’s to the _Lancet_, and I cannot do better than refer him to Dr. Sansom’s able reply to it in the _Lancet_ of January 13th. Dr. Sansom says that the white-cloud appearance in albuminous solutions to which carbolic acid has been added is often really no albuminous precipitate at all, but is caused by refractile globules of carbolic acid in a fine state of sub-division; also, that it has been shown that albuminous solutions are antisepted when carbolic acid exists in them in too feeble a proportion to cause any precipitate whatever. If carbolic acid acted as an antiseptic by coagulating albumen, agents which had a greater coagulating power would, _a fortiori_, be more powerful antiseptics, which has abundantly been proved not to be the case, and therefore the antiseptic properties of carbolic acid do not result solely from its power of coagulating albumen.

With respect to the assertion that the amount of carbolic acid vapour which could be tolerated in the air of a hospital ward would be entirely inadequate to act as a disinfectant, Dr. Sansom says his experiments have shown him that _carbolised atmospheres_ are efficient in preventing putrefaction and the growth of mouldiness, and more so than atmospheres impregnated with chloride of lime or sulphurous acid.

Dr. Sansom objects to the experiments recorded by Dr. Dougall, since tar oil (a crude product weak in carbolic acid, and possessing little or no volatile disinfectant constituent), and McDougall’s powder (a mixture of sulphites of lime and magnesia with tar oil) were used.

As to carbolic acid not being a good antiseptic, the following reports, I think, fully prove the contrary:—

The late Dr. W. Allen Miller, F.R.S., preserved urine and fresh blood for three months by the simple addition of five per cent. of Calvert’s carbolic disinfecting powder—a product containing fifteen per cent. of carbolic acid in a free state.

Mr. Wm. Crookes, F.R.S., says that he took some albumen from fresh eggs and mixed it with an equal bulk of water. By itself it became bad after nine days, and at the end of three weeks it smelt very strongly. He added to four bottles of the fluid respectively 1, 2½, 5, and 10 per cent. of carbolic acid powder (equivalent to 3/20, ⅜, ¾, and 1½ per cent. of free carbolic acid). All kept good at ordinary temperatures for forty days. Blood with 1/15 per cent. of carbolic acid remained good for a month. Solutions of size, glue, and gum mixed with 1/15 per cent. of carbolic acid have remained for two months without becoming sour. Fresh yeast was washed with water containing one-tenth per cent. Its power of inducing fermentation was entirely destroyed.

Dr. F. Crace Calvert, F.R.S., in his paper on comparative disinfectants, gives the following results with antiseptics upon solutions of albumen:—

Antiseptic Percentage Time in which employed. of acquired an antiseptic offensive odour. used. Temperature 70° to 80° F.

Chloride of 5 16 days. lime

Tar oil 2 11 days.

Carbolic acid 2 remained sound six months

None — 5 days.

The writer preserved meat for ninety days, during a hot summer, by placing twelve ounces of fresh meat in a bottle containing one pound of water and five grains of carbolic acid. The mouth of the bottle was left open, and no offensive smell was emitted till the ninety-third day. The meat was, of course, unfit for food, and was merely experimented with to test the antiseptic power of carbolic acid.

The following is an extract from a report in _Compte Rendus de l’Académie des Sciences_ of March 6th, 1871, by Messrs. Nelaton, Langier, and Payen, on experiments made at the Paris Morgue by M. Devergie:—

“During the heat of summer, when putrefying corpses in the Morgue continually emit a quantity of noxious gases that cannot be removed by ventilation or destroyed by chlorine or bleaching powder, we decided to prevent their production by trying to destroy the vitality of the germs of putrefaction, and thus prevent decomposition itself. We effected this by dissolving one litre of carbolic acid in 1,900 litres of water and irrigating the bodies with the solution thus made. Putrefaction was completely stopped, and disinfection was even obtained after reducing the quantity of acid by one-half. M. Devergie points out that water containing one four-thousandth part of carbolic acid proved sufficient during the intense heat of last summer to disinfect the deadhouse, without the aid of any shaft, when six or seven dead bodies were lying there. * * * * * * * * * * * Carbolic acid seems well adapted for the disinfection of rooms which have been occupied by persons suffering from infectious diseases; therefore, we recommend its use, after being dissolved in thirty times its weight of water, by sprinkling it on the floors, pavements, and staircases during the stay of patients in rooms and for a few days after their departure.”