Part 3

These works are ingeniously constructed at Fair Mount on the eastern bank of the river. The water is raised by the action of an engine, moved by the water power of the river itself, and deposited in large reservoirs, from whence it is conveyed by iron pipes to every part of the city. The aggregate length of the pipes already laid exceeds 63 miles. Three reservoirs have already been constructed which contain ten millions of gallons, and a fourth has been commenced which will contain ten millions more, being a quantity sufficient for the use of the city Philadelphia ten days.

LAKES.

Lakes are of four distinct classes.

1. Those which have no streams of water running into nor from them. They are generally very small, and of little consequence.

2. Those which have streams flowing from them, but none flowing into them. These are mostly supplied with water from subterraneous springs. Some of this class form the sources of large rivers, and are generally situated on elevated land.

3. Those which have streams flowing both into and from them. These, by a continual flow of fresh river water, preserve their clearness and sweetness; and often, besides the river which seems to flow through them, have sources of their own near their shores, or from springs at their bottoms.

4. The fourth class is ranked among the phenomena of nature. They have no visible outlet, but receive the waters of rivers which flow into them. The Caspian sea, in Asia, is an instance of this kind. These lakes probably lose the surplus of their waters by evaporation produced by the heat of the sun.

The waters of lakes which receive their supply from springs and rivers, partake of their qualities. There are some lakes whose waters are exceedingly clear and transparent. Lake Wetter in Europe is so limpid that a piece of money can be seen at the bottom at 120 feet depth.

CAVERNS.

In many parts of the earth are found caverns, or deep cavities and grottoes, which are remarkable on account of their great extent, and for the grand and imposing appearance of the rocks which compose the sides and roof.

Fingal’s cave, in the island Staffa, one of the western islands of Scotland, is a noted cave.

It is thus described by a celebrated traveller. ‘The mind can hardly form an idea more magnificent than such a space, supported on each side by ranges of basaltic columns and roofed by the ends of those which have been broken off, between the angles of which, a yellow matter has exuded, which serves to define the angles exactly, and at the same time vary the color with a great degree of elegance. To render it still more imposing, the whole is lighted up from without, so that the farthest extremity is visible, and the air within being agitated by the motion of the water, is perfectly wholesome, and free from the noxious vapors with which caverns are usually filled.’

Some caverns are of great depth, descending in some instances, eleven thousand feet. Others, after a descent, assume a horizontal direction, and are formed into many grottoes. The most remarkable grotto known, is the Grotto of the island Antiparos, in the Archipelago sea. The principal chamber of this cavern is exhibited on page 3.

In many caverns, water is found at a great depth, and this circumstance, together with the fact that water is obtained by digging deep wells, seems to prove that there are sheets of water under ground, which extend to considerable distances.

MINERALS.

The earth contains many mineral substances beneath its surface, which are useful to man. These substances are dug out, and thus immense mines are formed. Gold and silver are obtained in great quantities in South America. Iron, the most useful of metals, is obtained in various parts of the world. Annexed is a representation of the iron mine at Dalmora, in Europe. The iron ore is not dug out as in mines of coal, tin, &c. but is torn up by means of gunpowder.

The descent into this mine is by means of buckets attached to ropes.

GRAND DIVISIONS OF THE EARTH.

The Earth has generally been considered by geographers under four GRAND DIVISIONS, viz. America, Europe, Asia, and Africa. Besides these, there are four clusters of Islands, which according to some geographers constitute other divisions, viz. Australasia, Polynesia, the East India Islands, and the West India Islands.

AMERICA is the largest of the divisions, and was unknown to the civilized world till the year 1492, when it was discovered by Christopher Columbus. It however takes its name from Americus Vesputius, who came to the country about seven years after. The _face of the country_ is distinguished by lofty mountains and extensive lakes. Among its rivers are found the largest in the world.

Most of the _metals_, _minerals_, _trees_, _plants_, and _fruits_ found on the other continent, are produced in abundance here, and many of them in greater perfection. The climate of America is found to be _ten degrees cooler_ than the climate of the other continent in the same latitude.

EUROPE is the smallest of the divisions, but is distinguished above all the others for its advancement in military power, and in civilisation, science, and literature.

ASIA is remarkable for having contained the “garden of Eden,” where our first parents were placed. In this division, the Jewish, the Christian, and the Mahometan religions had their origin. Its soil is more fertile than that of any other division, and its inhabitants more numerous.

AFRICA is less known than any of the other divisions. The greater part of the inhabitants are in a state of barbarism. Nearly three-quarters of Africa lie in the torrid zone, and the dark complexion and savage character of the inhabitants, and the ferocity of its wild beasts, seem in unison with the excessive heat of the sun, and the frightful aspect of the deserts.

The WEST INDIA ISLANDS lie in the Atlantic Ocean, between North and South America, in the torrid zone. They belong principally to European nations.

Australasia, Polynesia, and the East India Islands are sometimes included under the general name of OCEANICA. These islands present every variety of surface and climate, and produce many of the luxuries of life in abundance. They also abound in volcanoes.

CIVIL AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.

The principal Political Divisions, are _Empires_, _Kingdoms_, and _Republics_.

An EMPIRE consists of several large countries, governed by one sovereign, called an emperor.

A KINGDOM is generally of a lesser extent than an empire, and is governed by a king.

If the power of an emperor, or of a king, be limited by law, the government is called a _limited monarchy_; if there be no legal restraint to the will of the sovereign, it is called an _absolute monarchy_.

A REPUBLIC is a country, the government of which is confided to persons elected, by the people, for a limited term. A Republic is generally composed of a union of States.

States, Provinces, Counties, Cities, Towns, &c. are still smaller divisions of countries.

The principal Religions professed by the inhabitants of the earth, are the Jewish, Pagan, Mahometan, and Christian.

There are five principal races of men.

1. The _Asian race_ are of a deep yellow or tawny color; have small eyes, prominent cheek bones, and an abundance of straight black hair.

2. The _Malay race_ are of a deep brown color; have broad noses and mouths, projecting foreheads, and black curled hair.

3. The _African_ or _black race_ have thick lips, flat noses, and black woolly hair; the head is compressed on each side, the forehead very arched, and the chin drawn in.

4. The _Native American race_ are of a copper color; have exceedingly high cheek bones, and straight black hair.

5. The _European race_ (which includes the inhabitants of the United States and all descendants of Europeans in every part of the earth) is distinguished from the other by the regularity and symmetry of their features and by their complexion, which is white mingled with red; they have straight hair. In warm climates the European complexion takes a swarthy or brown color; but the original color, viz. white and red, always prevails in the complexion of the infants of this race in every climate. This race is supposed to have _originated_ in the Caucasian countries in Western Asia, and is sometimes called the _Caucasian race_.

STATE OF SOCIETY.

Nations are either Savage, Barbarous, Civilized, or Enlightened.

1. Savages are those who are ignorant of the art of writing, and whose ideas are confined to objects which strike the senses. They are inclined to be superstitious, cruel, and revengeful, but are in general free from the acquired vices of more enlightened people. They live together in tribes, and have a deadly hatred towards all other tribes. They delight in war, and are noted for the patient endurance of fatigue, and contempt of pain. Some of the African tribes, and the North American Indians are of this class.

2. Barbarous, or half civilized nations, are those which by written laws, religious ceremonies, or a partial advance in the arts of life, have evidently emerged from a savage state. Their progress towards civilisation is slow, and as advance is made, their characteristic fierceness and barbarity give place to more regular habits. Cruelty to females is a characteristic of the savage and many of the barbarous nations.

3. Civilized nations are those which have arranged their knowledge, in the form of arts and sciences. Females are in such nations treated with kindness.

4. Enlightened nations have brought the arts, sciences, religion, and laws, to exert their greatest and best influence on mankind. In these nations females are educated to be companions of the men, and are treated with the greatest kindness and respect. The United States and some parts of Europe are of this class.

NORTH AMERICA.

1. _By whom and in what year was America discovered?_ 2. _After whom was it named?_ 3. _What is remarkable in the climate of America?_ 4. What are the principal divisions of North America? 5. In what part are the British Possessions? 6. Mexico? 7. The United States? 8. Greenland? 9. The Russian Possessions? 10. Guatimala? 11 to 16. How is each one of these divisions bounded?

17. What range of mountains extends through the whole length of North America? 18. What is its course? 19. Near which coast is this range? 20. What range of mountains is in The United States? 21. _Which is the highest mountain in North America?_

22. Which are the principal lakes? 23. Bays and gulfs? 24. How is Lake Nicaragua situated? 25. Which is more northwardly, Hudson’s or Baffin’s bay? 26. Where is Repulse bay? 27. Wager? 28. James’s? 29. Bristol? 30. Campeachy? 31. Honduras? 32. Where is the Gulf of Darien? 33. Gulf of Mexico? 34. Gulf of St. Lawrence?

35. What large river flows from the lakes, north from The United Slates, to the Atlantic Ocean? 36. How is Lake Winnipeg connected with Hudson’s bay? 37. Slave lake with the Arctic sea? 38. Where is Columbia river? 39. What is its course? 40. Into what does it flow? 41. _Which is the largest river in North America?_ 42. What rivers form the boundary, in part, between Mexico and The United States? 43. What river flows into the Lake of the Hills? 44. Into the Gulf of Mexico? 45. Hudson’s bay? 46. Gulf of California?

47. How is America separated from Asia? 48. Newfoundland from New Britain? 49. How is Baffin’s bay connected with the Atlantic ocean? 50. Where are Hudson’s straits? 51. How is Nootka sound situated?

52. Is California an isthmus or a peninsula? 53. Where is Cape Farewell? 54. Cape Mendocino? 55. Icy Cape? 56. What cape is at the southern extremity of Nova Scotia? 57. How many degrees further north is Cape Race, than Cape Corrientes?

58. What islands are near the western coast of North America? 59. What is the latitude of Vancouver’s Island? 60. How are the Bahama Islands separated from Florida? 61. Where are the West India Islands? 62. Which of them is largest? 63. _To what nations do they principally belong?_ 64. Where is North Georgian Island?

65. In what part of the United States is the Oregon Territory? 66. The Missouri Territory? 67. In what part of the British Possessions is Labrador? 68. _Is the direction towards the top of a map always exactly north, and towards the bottom always exactly south?_ 69. _What directions are exactly north, and south?_ 70. Which way from Newfoundland is Cape Farewell? 71. Which way from the northern extremity of Labrador is Cape Farewell? 72. Which way from the Fox Islands are Bhering’s straits?

73. On what island is Havanna? 74. Kingston? 75. Where is Quebec? 76. Montreal? 77. How far south does Florida extend? 78. How is it bounded on the east and west? 79. Between what parallels of latitude do the United States principally lie?

80. In what zone does North America principally lie? 81. Does any part lie in the Northern Frigid Zone? 82. From what meridian is longitude computed on the map of North America? 83. Which way is St. John’s, the capital of Newfoundland, from New York? 84. Quebec from Mexico? 85. Halifax from Boston? 86. Which way from the Bermuda islands is Newfoundland?

NORTH AMERICA is divided into portions belonging to different nations. It embraces every variety of soil and climate, and its peculiar features are great ranges of mountains, long rivers, and extensive lakes. Previously to its discovery by Columbus, it was in possession of tribes of wandering Indians, most of whom were savages. They were remarkable for strength, courage, and activity, and showed all the peculiarities incident to the savage life, in the greatest degree.

_Russian America_ is chiefly valuable on account of its fur trade. It is an exceedingly cold country, and is still, mostly in possession of native Indians.

_British America_ comprises Canada, New Wales, and Labrador, New Brunswick, and the neighboring islands, together with the extent of country between Hudson’s Bay and the Russian Possessions. Canada and New Brunswick are the only parts which are settled by any considerable numbers of civilized people, nine tenths of the country being still inhabited by Indians.

Furs are the staple article of the commerce and trade of the country. The Northwest Fur Company have an establishment at Fort Chipawyan, where the Indians resort to sell their furs.

_Mexico._ The coasts of this country are level and low. Towards the interior the land gradually rises, until it attains an elevation of 6700 feet above the sea, and then forms an immense plateau. The climate is hot and unhealthy, except on the plateau, where it is salubrious. Mexico contains the richest gold and silver mines in the world, and the pursuit of these treasures led the Spaniards, when they first discovered the country, to oppress the natives.

The city Mexico is situated in the midst of this plateau, and is surrounded by mountains. It is one of the most magnificent cities in the world;—its streets are regular, and its buildings truly elegant. The churches are adorned with gold and silver.

Above is the view of the great square. In the centre and opposite the Cathedral, is an equestrian statue of Charles IV. on a pedestal of marble. This was cast in Mexico, and weighs 40,500 pounds. It is one of the handsomest monuments in the world.

_Guatimala._ The climate is like that of Mexico. Volcanoes abound, and not less than twenty are constantly burning. Logwood and mahogany are obtained here in vast quantities.

UNITED STATES.

NOTE. The pupil must not think that the opposite map gives a view of the whole extent of the territory of the United States; it represents only that part which is divided into States, and settled. A view of the whole is given on the map of North America; and by comparing the two maps, he will easily understand what part is here represented.

1. _The United States constitute a Republic; how is the government administered?_ 2. How many States and Territories are in this Republic, including Oregon Territory? 3. How is Maine bounded? 4 to 30. How are the other States and Territories severally bounded? 31. What States are north from the 40th parallel of latitude? 32. What south?

33. There is a range of mountains which extends almost through the whole of the United States; what is its general course? 34. Through what part of Virginia does it run? 35. What mountains are in Tennessee? 36. In Alabama? 37. Where are the Lead Hills?

38. _Is the water of lakes generally salt or fresh?_ 39. What lakes lie between the United States and Canada? 40. How is Lake Michigan situated? 41. Moose Head Lake? 42. Flambeau Lake? 43. Lake St. Clair? 44. What lakes are near the source of the Mississippi river? 45. _What is a lake called if its waters be salt?_

46. What bays are located on the south coast of Florida? 47. Where is Narraganset bay? 48. What large gulf is south from the United States?

49. _What is a Sound?_ 50. Where is Albemarle sound? 51. Pamlico sound?

52. What river rises in the northern part of Maine, and flows through New Brunswick into the Atlantic? 53. What is the course of the Mississippi river? 54. Of what States does it form the eastern boundary? 55. Of what the western? 56. What rivers flow into it from the east? 57. What from the west?

58. Of what state does the Ohio river form the northern boundary? 59. Of what states the southern? 60. Where is the Great Kanhawa river? 61. What is its course?

62. What are the principal rivers of Virginia? 63. North Carolina? 64. South Carolina? 65. Georgia? 66. Alabama? 67. Mississippi? 68. Tennessee? 69. What large river unites with the Mississippi, near St. Louis? 70. What rivers flow south into the Ohio? 71. What river flows through Arkansas territory into the Mississippi?

72. Where is Cape St. Blas? 73. What capes at the mouth of Chesapeake bay? 74. What capes on the coast south from Cape Hatteras? 75. What strait connects lakes Huron and Michigan?

76. Which way is Long Island from New Jersey? 77. Where is Mount Desert Island? 78. Sullivan’s island? 79. Royale Island? 80. What two islands lie near the mouth of St. Mary’s river?

81. How are the following capitals and chief towns situated, viz. Richmond?

82. Norfolk? 83. Raleigh? 84. Columbus? 85. Cincinnati? 86. Indianapolis? 87. Vincennes? 88. Vandalia? 89. Kaskaskia? 90. Jefferson city? 91. Nashville? 92. St. Louis? 93. Arkopolis, or Little Rock? 94. Frankfort? 95. Lexington? 96. Knoxville? 97. Charleston? 98. Milledgeville? 99. Tuscaloosa? 100. Tallahassee? 101. Natches? 102. New Orleans? 103. Mobile? 104. WASHINGTON?[1]

105. Which way is Maine from New Jersey? 106. Georgia from Ohio? 107. Michigan from Massachusetts? 108. Indiana from North Carolina?

109. Which way are Philadelphia, Washington, and Baltimore from Boston? 110. Which is furthest?

_Note._ Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island, are called THE NEW ENGLAND STATES;—New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, New Jersey, and Delaware, THE MIDDLE STATES;—Virginia, North and South Carolinas, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana, THE SOUTHERN STATES;—Tennessee, Kentucky, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and Missouri, THE WESTERN STATES.—111. In what part of the Union are these sections severally situated?

FOOTNOTES:

[1] The capital of the United States is WASHINGTON, where the President resides. Congress assembles here to make the laws by which the people are governed.

MAINE.

This map represents only the southern part of the State of Maine; the northern part is covered with extensive forests. For the whole shape of the State, the pupils must refer to the Map of the United States; and by comparing the two maps, they will easily comprehend what portion of the State is here represented. This State has many lakes and rivers, but some of them are not well suited to navigation.

1. How many counties are there in Maine?[2] 2. Which of them lie along the shore of the Atlantic ocean? 3. Has Kennebeck county any sea-coast? 4. In what part is Oxford county? 5. Which is more eastwardly, Penobscot or Somerset county? 6. What lake lies in Cumberland county? 7. What lakes in Oxford county? 8. In what part of Somerset county is Moosehead lake? 9. Where is Sebec lake? 10. What creeks flow into it? 11. In what part of Maine are the Schodic lakes? 12. In what county are they? 13. What river connects Madybemp lake and Cobscook bay? 14. Into what county does Penobscot bay extend? 15. At the mouth of what river is Passamaquoddy bay? 16. Which is more eastwardly, Machias or Goldsboro’ bay? 17. In what county is Casco bay? 18. On what bay is Nobleboro’? 19. Which way is New Meadow bay from Casco bay? 20. Where is Frenchman’s bay? 21. English bay? 22. Into what does Mount Desert sound extend? 23. Where is Belfast bay? 24. Which is further west, Prospect harbour or Haycock harbour? 25. Where is Pleasant River bay?

26. What river flows between Maine and New Brunswick? 27. What are the rivers of Washington county? 28. Which is the largest river in Maine? 29. Into what bay does it flow? 30. What rivers flow into it from the west? 31. What from the east? 32. Through what counties does the Kennebeck river flow? 33. With what lake, in Somerset county, does one of its branches communicate? 34. Where is the Androscoggin river? 35. Where does it rise? 36. What is its course? 37. What rivers in York county? 38. Where is Marshall’s Island?

39. Which are the two largest of the numerous islands near the coast of Maine? 40. Which of them is further east? 41. What islands lie east from Passamaquoddy and Cobscook bays? 42. Which of them is furthest north? 43. On which of them is Eastport situated? 44. What island lies at the entrance of Machias bay? 45. Where is Manhegin island? 46. Boon island? 47. Which is more eastwardly, Little Menan island or Bowbear island? 48. Which is more northwardly, Seal rock, or Wooden Ball rock? 49. What is the longitude from Washington, of Mount Desert rock?

50. Where is Gerrish point? 51. Cape Neddock? 52. Which is more eastwardly, Cape Small Point or Cape Elizabeth? 53. Which way from Mount Desert rock is Sciodic point? 54. In what part of Maine is Quoddy head? 55. At the entrance of what bay is Cow point?

56. Is Castine situated on an island or a peninsula? 57. Are there many peninsulas on the coast of Maine? 58. What town in Cumberland county is situated on an isthmus?

59. On what river is Augusta, the capital of Maine? 60. In what county is it? 61. In what county is York? 62. Portland? 63. Wiscasset? 64. Paris? 65. Norridgewock? 66. Bangor? 67. Castine? 68. Machias?

69. On what bay are Portland, North Yarmouth, and Freeport? 70. Near the mouth of what rivers is Bath situated?

71. On what river is Prospect? 72. Name some of the towns on Androscoggin river. 73. On Penobscot river. 74. Which way from Eastport is Lubec?

75. Which way from Augusta is Hallowell? 76. Which way is Waterville? 77. In what county is it? 78. Which way from Kennebunk is Thomaston? 79. What town is near the junction of the east and west branches of Pleasant river?

FOOTNOTES: