Part 51

Ammonia, or hartshorn, as it is sometimes called, from the fact that it was formerly obtained by distilling the horns of harts, or deer, is almost always present in the air in small quantities. It is produced chiefly by the decay of animal and vegetable matter, especially the former. Though present in the air in very small quantities, it is of much value to the plant world, because it contains nitrogen in a form in which it can be readily absorbed by plants. All plants contain some nitrogen, which is essential to their growth, but the greater part of the nitrogen in the air is not in such form that it can be absorbed by them. They must obtain their supply from the soil, which usually contains some nitrogen in a form that may be taken up by plants, and from the ammonia in the air. The latter is not taken directly out of the air by the plants, but the rains falling through the air absorb the ammonia and carry it to the soil, from which it is taken up into the plants by their roots.

~VARIOUS GASES FOUND IN AIR~

Besides the gases that have been mentioned, there is present in the air, at all times, a small quantity of water-vapor, which is, in many ways as important to mankind as is the oxygen itself. The quantity of water in the air is not always the same. As a rule, the quantity is greater in warm air than in cold, and is less over land than over water. Frequently the air feels damp in cold weather, and dry in hot weather, and it is natural to suppose that there is more vapor in the air on the damp day than on the dry one. This, however, is not always true. There is usually more moisture in the air on a warm summer day than on a cold day in winter, though the winter day may seem much more moist. You will be able to understand why this is so by comparing the air to a sponge. If we fill a sponge with water, and squeeze it gently, a little water will be forced out of it. If we then remove the pressure on the sponge. When the air cools, will appear dry on the surface, but there will still be water in it, and on being squeezed harder than before it will again become moist on the surface and more water will be forced out of it. Now cold has an effect upon moisture-laden air very much like that of pressure on the sponge. When the air cools, some of the moisture is forced out of it, and the air seems damp. When it warms again, the air seems dry, though there is still water-vapor in it. It seems dry because it can absorb more water-vapor, just as the sponge seems dry after you cease to squeeze it, though it still contains water. From this we see that the air does not always seem moist when there is much water-vapor in it, nor dry when there is only a little. It feels moist when there is as much water-vapor present as it can hold, and dry when it can held more than it already has. And we also see that in hot weather the air can hold much more moisture than it can in cold weather, so that whether the air feels dry or moist, there is generally much more water-vapor in it in hot weather than in cold.

It is easy to see that, over water, the air naturally takes up more moisture than over land, because there is so much more water there to be transformed into vapor. Over the surface of seas, lakes and rivers, water is continually being converted into vapor by the process of evaporation, and this vapor is absorbed by the air.

Let us now consider the solid particles floating in the air, the dust that is seen dancing in the path of a sunbeam. Whenever we examine the air, these small particles are found, even on the tops of mountains, and at points so high above the earth that they have been reached only by balloons. Of course, there is very much less dust high above the earth than near the surface, where the winds are constantly stirring up the loose soil, and throwing into the air small particles of every kind. In cities, where factory chimneys are continually pouring out clouds of smoke, and the people and vehicles are constantly disturbing the dust of the streets, the air always contains more dust than does the air of the country.

In order that we may breathe air, the oxygen in it has been mixed with four times as much nitrogen and argon, which must be inhaled with the oxygen, though they have no more effect on the body than the water you take with a strong medicine to weaken it. The oxygen, however, has a very important effect upon the body, and if we compare the air we exhale with that we inhale we find considerably less oxygen in the former than in the latter. In place of the oxygen, the air has received carbonic acid gas. It may seem very strange to say that there is burning going on in the body, but that is very nearly what takes place. The chief difference from coal-burning is that in the body the process goes on so slowly that it does not make the body very hot; but when we set fire to coal, the process is much more rapid, and a large amount of heat is produced in a short time, so that the coal becomes very hot. The products of breathing and of coal-burning are the same, carbonic acid gas being the chief one. When coal is burned it disappears, together with some of the oxygen of the air, and in their stead we have carbonic acid gas. When a breath is taken some of the material of the body disappears, as does some of the oxygen of the air, and in place of them carbonic acid gas is found. If we could weigh the coal burned and the oxygen that disappears in the burning of it, and could then weigh the carbonic acid gas that is produced in the burning, we should find that the latter weighs just as much as the coal and the oxygen together. So, too, if we could weigh the oxygen that disappears from the air we breathe, and also find the weight of the material taken from our bodies by breathing, we should find that the two together weigh just as much as the carbonic acid gas given off in our breath. In neither case is anything absolutely destroyed; the substances resulting from the change weigh just as much as those that took part in it.

Having learned that a quantity of oxygen disappears every time we take a breath, every time we build a fire, it would seem that in the thousands of years during which men and animals have been living on the earth, all the oxygen would have been exhausted and nothing left in its place but carbonic acid gas. That, however, is impossible, as the carbonic acid gas is used up almost as fast as it is produced and the oxygen is returned to the air in its stead.

~HOW PLANTS EAT CARBONIC ACID~

All trees and plants, from the great redwood trees of California to the smallest flowers that dot the fields, need carbonic acid gas to keep them alive and to make them grow. Their leaves have the power when the sun shines on them to take up carbonic acid from the air and to return oxygen in exchange. In this way you see that the balance is kept just as it should be. The oxygen needed by animals of all kinds is furnished by the plants, and the carbonic acid required by plants is thrown off in the breath of animals.

Is It a Fact that the Sun Revolves On Its Axis?

It is a proved fact that the sun revolves on its axis. All parts of its surface, however, do not rotate with the same velocity. The rotation of the sun differs from that of the earth in this respect.

This constitutes the visible proof that the physical state of the sun is different from the earth’s, although they are composed of similar chemical elements.

The earth, being covered with a solid crust, and being also, as recent investigation demonstrates, as rigid as steel throughout its entire globe, rotates with one and the same angular velocity from the equator to the poles.

If you stood on the earth’s equator you would be carried by its daily rotation round a circle about 25,000 miles in circumference. If you stood within a yard of the North or South Pole you would be carried, by the same motion, round a circle not quite 19 feet in circumference. And yet it would require precisely the same time, viz., twenty-four hours, to describe the 19-foot circle as the 25,000-mile one.

What Is the Most Usefully Valuable Metal?

If you were guessing you would naturally say that gold is, of course, the most valuable of the metals. But you would be wrong. The proper answer to this is iron. We do not mean the pound for pound value, for you could get much more money for a pound of gold than for a pound of iron, but we mean in useful value--iron is in that sense the most valuable metal known to man. This is so because iron is of great service to man in so many different ways, and it is very well that there is so great a quantity of it for man’s use.

The Story in a Pipe and Cigar[6]

[6] Copyright by Tobacco Leaf Publishing Co.

Where Did the Name Tobacco Originate?

It is now generally agreed that the word tobacco is derived from “tobago,” which was an Indian pipe. The tobago was Y-shaped, and usually consisted of a hollow, forked reed, the two prongs of which were fitted into the nostrils, the smoke being drawn from tobacco placed in the end of the stem. The island of Tobago, contrary to the belief of many, did not furnish the name for tobacco, but on the other hand, it was given that name by Columbus, owing to its resemblance in shape to the Indian pipe.

How Was Tobacco Discovered?

While tobacco is now found growing in all inhabited countries, it is a native of the Americas and adjacent islands. Its discovery by civilized man was coincident with the discovery of this continent by Christopher Columbus in 1492. Columbus and his adventurous sailors found the native Indians using the weed on the explorer’s first visit to the new world. Investigation has established that the plant was first used as a religious rite and gradually became a social habit among the natives. Columbus and his Castilian successors carried the weed to Spain. Sir Walter Raleigh took it to England, Jean Nicot, whose name is immortalized in nicotine, introduced it to the French; adventurous traders brought the seed to Turkey and Syria, and Spanish argosies carried it westward from Mexico to the Philippines and thence to China and Japan. Thus within two centuries after its discovery tobacco was being cultivated in nearly every country and was being used by every race of men.

Where Does Tobacco Grow?

While tobacco is a native of the Americas, it is a fact that it will grow after a fashion almost anywhere. Milton Whitney, Chief of the Division of Soils, United States Department of Agriculture, in his bulletin on tobacco soils says tobacco can be grown in nearly all parts of the country even where wheat and corn cannot economically be grown. The plant readily adapts itself to the great range of climatic conditions, will grow on nearly all kinds of soil and has a comparatively short season of growth. But while it can be so universally grown, the flavor and quality of the leaf are greatly influenced by the conditions of climate and soil. The industry has been very highly specialized and there is only demand now for tobacco possessing certain qualities adapted to certain specific purposes.... It is a curious and interesting fact that tobacco suitable for our domestic cigars, is raised in Sumatra, Cuba and Florida, and then passing over our middle tobacco States the cigar type is found again in Massachusetts, Connecticut, Pennsylvania, Ohio and Wisconsin.... It is surprising to find so little difference in the meteorological record for these several places during the crop season. There does not seem to be sufficient difference to explain the distribution of the different classes of tobacco, and yet this distribution is probably due mainly to climatic conditions.... The plant is far more sensitive to these meteorological conditions than are our instruments. Even in such a famous tobacco region as Cuba, tobacco of good quality cannot be grown in the immediate vicinity of the ocean or in certain parts of the island that would otherwise be considered good tobacco lands. This has been experienced also in Sumatra and in our own country, but the influences are too subtle to be detected by our meteorological instruments.... Under good climatic conditions, the class and type of tobacco depend upon the character of the soil, especially on the physical character of the soil upon which it is grown, while the grade is dependent largely upon the cultivation and curing of the crop. Different types of tobacco are grown on widely different soils all the way from the coarse sandy lands of the Pine Barrens, to the heavy, clay, limestone, corn and wheat lands. The best soil for one kind of tobacco, therefore, may be almost worthless for the staple agricultural crops, while the best for another type of tobacco may be the richest and most productive soil of any that we have.

~WHERE HAVANA TOBACCO IS GROWN~

Havana tobacco, which means all tobacco grown on the island of Cuba, possesses peculiar qualities which make it the finest tobacco in the world for cigar purposes. The island produces from 350,000 to 500,000 bales annually, of which 150,000 to 250,000 bales come to the United States for use in American cigar factories. The best quality of the Cuban tobacco comes largely from the Vuelta Abajo section, although some very choice tobaccos are raised also in the Partidos section. Remedios tobaccos are more heavily bodied than others and are used almost exclusively for blending with our domestic tobaccos. While there are innumerable sub-classifications, such as Semi-Vueltas, Remates, Tumbadero, etc., the three general divisions named above, Vuelta Abajo, Partidos and Remedios, embrace the entire island. If a fourth general classification were to be added, it would be Semi-Vueltas. The Vuelta Abajo is grown in the Province of Pinar del Rio, located at the western end of the island. It is raised practically throughout the entire province. Semi-Vueltas are also grown in Pinar del Rio, but the trade draws a line between them and the genuine Vueltas. Partidos tobacco, which is grown principally in the Province of Havana, differs from the Vuelta Abajo in that it is of a much lighter quality. The Partidos country is famous for its production of fine light glossy wrappers. Tobacco from the foregoing sections is used principally in the manufacture of clear Havana cigars. Some of the heavier Vueltas, however, are also used for seed and Havana cigar purposes. Remedios, otherwise known as Vuelta-Arriba, is grown in the Province of Santa Clara, located in the center of the island. This tobacco is taken almost entirely by the United States and Europe and is used here for filler purposes, principally in seed and Havana cigars. Its general characteristics are a high flavor and rather heavy body, which make it especially suitable for blending with our domestic tobaccos. Havana tobacco is packed and marketed in bales.

Preparing the Seed Beds.

The first step is the preparation of the seed beds. For these beds low, rich, hardwood lands are selected. The trees are cut down and the wood split, converted into cord wood and piled up to dry. About the middle of January this wood is stacked up on skid poles and ignited. The ground is thus cleared by burning, the fires being moved from spot to spot until a sufficient area is cleared. By this process all grass, weeds, brush and insects are eradicated. The ground is then dug up with hoes and cleared off and a perfect seed bed is made.

The tobacco seed is first mixed with dry ashes in the proportion of about a tablespoonful of seed to a gallon of the ashes, and about this quantity is sowed over a square rod of land. This amount is calculated to supply plants enough for one acre of ground, but the farmers usually double the planting as a precaution against emergencies. After the seed beds are sowed they are covered over with cheesecloth as a means of protection, and they are carefully weeded and watered until the leaves have attained a length of about four inches. They are then ready for transplanting, which operation begins about the middle of April.

Fertilization.

In the meantime, the tobacco-growing areas have been prepared by plowing and fertilizing. The matter of fertilization has been the subject of much study and many experiments, and it has been definitely established that cow manure is one of the best for this purpose. This natural fertilizer is distributed on the fields at the rate of ten to twenty two-horse loads to each acre. In addition to this from two hundred to three hundred pounds of carbonate of potash, and from two thousand to three thousand pounds of bright cottonseed meal are employed. The total cost of this fertilizer amounts to about $120 per acre.

Planting.

After the fertilizer is well plowed into the land the ground is laid off into ridges about four feet apart, made by throwing two one-horse furrows together. These ridges are about two feet in width and are flattened on the top so as to make a level bed for the young plant. The farmer then measures off and marks these rows at intervals of 16 to 18 inches. At each mark he makes a small hole, and after pouring in a pint of water the plant is carefully set. Machine planters are used for this purpose to a limited extent.

Care of the Growing Crop.

The growers usually calculate on finishing their planting about the first of June. The young plants are then closely watched and are hoed and cultivated at least once a week. They are also supplied with sufficient water to keep them alive and growing. At this stage of the proceedings, the planter begins to look out for worms. The butter worm is one of his greatest enemies. This is a small green moth that lays its eggs in the bud of the plant and turns into a worm two days later. To stop the ravages of this insect, it is customary to use a mixture composed of some insecticide mixed with corn meal. A small pinch of this mixture is inserted at regular intervals in the bud of each plant until the plant is nearly grown.

When the tobacco is about three feet high, all such leaves as were on the plant when it was first set out are picked off and thrown away. About this time the crop is usually threatened by another enemy known as the horn worm. This is a large, mouse-colored moth, which swarms over the field about sun-down, and deposits green eggs about the size of a very small bird shot, on the back sides of the leaves. This is a very ravenous insect and unless carefully watched it will devour every leaf of tobacco, leaving nothing but the stalks standing. It is removed by picking off and by insecticides.

Harvesting.

About sixty to ninety days after setting, the bottom leaves on the plant are ripe and the grower is able to remove from three to four on each stalk. This is called priming. The primer detaches each leaf carefully and places it face down in his left hand, inspecting it at the same time to see that no worms are carried to the barns. Upon accumulating a handful, he places them in baskets that are lined with burlap to prevent injury to the leaf, and the filled baskets are either carried or hauled to the barns.

About this time the plants have begun to bud out at the top, and this bud, with a few small leaves around it, is broken off. This process is called topping, and is done for the purpose of confining the development of the plant to the leaves below. After topping, the priming of the tobacco is continued for about three weeks, and until all the upper leaves of marketable value have been harvested. In the meantime, the suckering has to be looked after, which is the removing of the small branches that have a tendency to grow out of the main stalk of the plant.

In the barns the leaves are placed on long tables, behind which stand the stringers. They string the leaves, each separately, on strong cotton twine, about thirty leaves to a string, spaced about an inch apart. If this is not done carefully and accurately, several leaves may become bunched together and the cure will thereby be impaired. It is attention to this detail which prevents the defect known as pole-sweat. These strings are tied at either end to a tobacco lath, and the lath is hung upon two poles. These poles are placed in courses in the barn, at spaces of two feet, one above the other.

~HOW TOBACCO IS CURED~

Here the tobacco undergoes its preliminary, or barn cure, and during this period the grower is constantly on the anxious seat, having to open and close his curing houses according to the changes in the weather, and to look closely after the ventilation of his crop in order to avoid the development of stem rot and other afflictions with which the tobacco is threatened at this stage of the proceedings.

Bulk Sweating.

In due course of time the laths are taken down, the strings removed and the leaves are formed into hands and tied with a string. The tobacco is then packed temporarily in cases and delivered at the fermenting house, where it is put into what is known as the bulk sweat. This consists of uniform piles of tobacco covered over with blankets, and which are frequently “turned” in order that they shall cure evenly and not become too dark in color. From the bulk sweat the tobacco goes to the sorting tables, where it is divided into numerous grades of length and color. It is then turned over to the packers, who form it into bales.

How is Tobacco Cultivated?