Part 30

The operating tube is here shown within the body of a hulk and co-operating with the lifting derrick on the surface craft in the removal of the submerged cargo. A grab-dredge bucket of well-known construction is used, the jaws of which, when being lowered by one rope, open, and when strain is brought on the lifting rope, the jaws close. The working end of the tube is placed in the immediate neighborhood of the cargo to be lifted and, as the grab is being lowered from the boat above, the operator in the compartment controls the grab by means of the guide line shown attached to the small derrick boom, and leads it directly over the cargo to be lifted. The grab is then dropped and the signal sent to the vessel above to hoist. The moment the lifting line tautens the bucket grasps a load and fills itself with material in the manner common to this type of dredge. This method of directing intelligently and deliberately the dredge bucket may be applied as well to the removal of rock or any other obstruction or to any of those various services of kindred character familiar to submarine engineers. The great and prime advantage of the system is the fact that no divers are required, and the work is under the perfect control of an operator subject only to atmospheric pressure. In consequence, therefore, the only limit to the effective operating of this apparatus is the length of the tube, and, as has been said, this can be made long enough to reach depths denied to the diver simply by interposing additional sections.

Where Do Sponges Come From?

Until within comparatively recent years, the sponge was regarded as a plant; it is now known to belong to the animal kingdom, and to the order spongida of the class of rhizopoda. Sponge is an elastic, porous substance, formed of interlaced horny fibers, which produce by their numerous inosculations, a rude sort of network, with meshes or pores of unequal sizes, and usually of a square or angulated shape. Besides these pores there are some circular holes of large size scattered over the surface of most sponges, which lead into sinuous canals that permeate their interior in every direction. The oscula, canals, and pores, communicate freely together. The characteristic property of the sponge is the facility with which it absorbs a large quantity of any fluid, more especially of water, which is retained amid the meshes until forced out again by a sufficient degree of compression, when the sponge returns to its former bulk. From this peculiarity, combined with its pleasant softness, arises the value of the sponge for the purposes to which it is applied. In domestic economy and in surgical practice, there is no other product that can be satisfactorily substituted for it.

Sponge is an aquatic production, indigenous to almost every sea and shore. It is abundant and varied between the tropics, but becomes less so in temperate latitudes and continues to diminish in quantity, variety, and size, as it is traced into European and colder seas, until it almost disappears in the vicinity of the polar circles. Some sponges are known to be hermaphrodite, but that the individual at one period produces chiefly male elements, and later, chiefly female elements. Fertilization takes place in the body of the mother, and the egg here undergoes its early development. The embryo eventually bursts the maternal tissue and, passing into one of the canals, is caught by the current sweeping through the canal system and is discharged into the surrounding water through one of the large apertures on the surface of the sponge. In the Bahama Islands and along the coast of Florida, the breeding time of many sponges covers the period from mid-summer on through early Autumn.

There is propagation sometimes by ciliated gemmules, yellowish and oval, arising from the sarcode mass, and carried out by the currents. These are mostly formed in the spring, and after swimming freely about for a time, become fixed and grow. In its natural state, the sponge is a very different looking object from the article of commerce. The entire surface is covered with a thin, slimy skin, usually of a dark color, and perforated to correspond with the apertures of the canals. The sponge of commerce is in reality only the home or the skeleton of the sponge.

There are a few sponges that inhabit ponds and sluggish rivers; the others are marine. Of these, many of the calcareous and siliceous kinds inhabit the shores between tide-marks, preferring a site near the low ebb, where, nevertheless, they are daily alternately submerged, and left exposed to the atmosphere. The figured sponges with a fibrous texture, to whatever genus they belong, are denizens of deeper water, and are never left uncovered. They grow usually in groups, on rock shells, shellfish, corallines, and seaweeds, and either have no power of selection, or the quality of the site is indifferent to them.

How Do Sponges Grow?

In their growth, some sponges assume a determinate figure or at least one whose variations are confined within certain limits. The greater number are irregular and variable, their shape depending in a great measure upon the peculiarities of their state, to which they easily accommodate themselves. They will incrust a shell, or a crab, a rock, or seaweed, following every projection and sinuosity. The offshoots will spring up with a more luxuriant growth in the deeper sheltered places until the original shape of the foundation they grow upon is lost to sight.

Sponges are unmoving and inirritable. They never remain rooted to the places of the germination, and are incapable either of contracting or dilating themselves or even of moving any fiber or portion of their mass. The functions which distinguish them as living beings are few, and faintly imaged.

How Do Sponges Eat?

Although sponges lack the power of motion possessed by most animals, being nearly always attached, in one position or another, to some object, the study of their habits in captivity brings out many of their animal characteristics in a striking manner. Small specimens taken from the sea and placed in dishes of salt water may be kept alive for several hours if well cared for; and by using finely powdered coloring matter, such as carmine or indigo, the manner of their feeding may be readily observed. Sponges are more active in fresh sea water than in stale; they cannot be kept alive out of water and soon die if exposed to the air. Being unable to go in search of food, as a natural result, they can grow only in places where there is always an abundance of food suited to their wants. The great sponging grounds of the world are wholly confined within waters having a relatively high temperature during the entire year. The Old World sponges grow principally in the Mediterranean and the Red seas; the New World sponges are found about the Bahamas, southern and western Florida, and parts of the West Indies. The finest sponges come from the East, but one of the American species, the so-called “sheep’s wool,” stands high in favor.

The commercial sponges are separated into six species, three of which are European and three American. They are all referred to a single genus called spongia, and though having much in common as regards structure, their texture varies to such an extent as to make them of very unequal value for domestic purposes.

The Old World species may be arranged as follows, in order of their grade of excellence, beginning with the best quality: The Turkey cup sponge, Levant toilet sponge, the horse, honey comb, or bath sponge, and the Zimoca sponge. The American species include the sheep’s wool sponge, the yellow glove, violet, and grass, sponges. A very close relationship exists between the species of the two continents.

All known regions in which useful specimens abound contribute to the world’s supply. The trade is extensive. The demands upon the fisheries are great. In the Mediterranean, the fishing is carried on in some places at a depth of forty fathoms. Divers, naked, or in armor, go down to the bottom and tear off the sponges from their places of growth. In some places drag dredges are employed.

How Are Sponges Caught?

In the past quarter-century the sponge-fishery of the Florida coast has grown remarkably. Its headquarters is at Key West and several hundred sailing vessels are engaged in the industry. The fishing appliances consist of a small boat, a long hook, and a waterglass. The hook is in reality a three-pronged spear attached to a pole thirty-five feet long. In searching for sponge the fishers row about in the small boat. By holding the glass on the surface of the water the bottom is plainly seen and small objects are readily discerned. When a sponge is sighted the pole with the hook attached is shot down and the product deftly gathered. The boat-load is brought to the deck of the schooner, allowed to remain there a few hours, and then is carried down into the hold. On Friday nights, the fishing generally ends for the week, and the vessel sails for some spot on the neighboring coast where there are established crawls, or places for curing the catch. These crawls are about 8 x 10 feet square, their purpose being to hold the sponges while maceration and decomposition take place. The resulting refuse is carried off by the tide.

The fishermen go away for another catch and the sponges are left in the crawls until the end of the following week when a new cargo is brought in. The returning fishermen beat the decomposed sponges with clubs, removing the impurities. The water is squeezed out, then the sponges are allowed to dry on the ground.

After drying, the hold of the large vessel is loaded to the utmost with the product and the voyage to Key West is made. Buyers from New York look over the sponges, and make offers for entire cargoes. The fishermen dispose of their goods rapidly and sail away for more. The buyers store the sponges in some dry building, and cause them to be bleached by lime. A popular manner of bleaching is to wash the sponges thoroughly in water, and then to immerse them in diluted hydrochloric acid to dissolve any of the calcareous substance. Having again been washed they are placed in another bath of dilute hydrochloric acid to which six per cent. of hyposulphite of soda, dissolved in a little warm water, has been added. In this bath the sponges remain for twenty-four hours, or until the bleaching process is completed. After bleaching, the sponges are pressed until their bulk is greatly reduced; they are then baled, and shipped to New York, which is the distributing point for the entire Florida product.

Sponges are by far the most important fishery products of Florida, representing about one-third of the annual value of the fishing industry. In 1899, the yield was over 350,000 pounds of sponges of which the first value was nearly $400,000.

Why Does Yeast Make Bread Rise?

There is a lot of sugar in the dough from which bread is made. Sugar contains three things--carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. When sugar is fermented it amounts practically to burning it. To make good bread from the dough it is necessary to ferment the sugar which is in the ingredients from which it is made. Yeast, which is a simple living plant, has the power to ferment sugar. When sugar ferments, two things are produced. One thing is the formation of carbonic acid gas. A great deal of this carbonic acid gas is caught in the dough in the form of large or small bubbles and some of it escapes into the air. The other part tries to escape into the air also but cannot, and causes the dough to rise, which makes the bread light, as we say. The holes you see in the bread after it is baked are the little pockets where the carbonic acid gas was retained in the dough. These bubbles of gas all through the dough act like a lot of little balloons and lift the dough up with themselves as they try to get to the top and escape into the air.

What Is Yeast?

Yeast is a living plant that is used for the purpose of causing fermentation. The yeast we use in baking bread is an artificial yeast--really a dough made of flour and a little common yeast and made into small cakes and dried. If kept free from moisture it retains the power of causing fermentation for some time. The flour and other matter in a cake of yeast are only used to keep the yeast in a form where it can be preserved. It is necessary to add water to start fermentation and that is why we add hot water when we stir in the yeast for a baking.

Is a Moth Attracted By a Light?

It seems to be a strange contradiction of the nature of living things that a moth should fly deliberately into a light or dash itself to death against the glass surrounding a strong light. This is contrary to the usual law of nature which gives the living thing an instinct to protect itself against enemies.

For a long time we thought that moths did not deliberately burn themselves up by flying right into a light, but our naturalists have proven that not only moths but certain birds, bees, flies and butterflies, burn themselves up by flying into the flame of a light or fire.

How Man Discovered Fire

Fire was probably one of man’s first, if not the first, great discoveries, and has been one of his greatest servants as well as one of his greatest dangers. We do not know who discovered fire, or what nation first used it. It is, however, one of the signs that distinguishes man from the other animals. Not any of the lower animals was acquainted with the use of fire, while probably the earliest races of mankind seem to have been acquainted with it.

Mythology tells us wonderful stories of the origin of fire: according to these tales it was stolen from the sun, or the gods, and given to man; and Pandora, the first woman, was sent down to earth to punish man for his theft.

The most popular of these stories is the legend of Prometheus. According to this legend, fire, in the early days, was under the exclusive control of the gods. Prometheus, brother of Atlas, the god who supported the world on his shoulders, determined that the use of fire should be given to the people. He decided by some means to send a spark of fire to the earth, believing that one spark caught by man would start a burning flame that would never go out.

With this idea in mind, Prometheus visited Zeus, the great ruler, to carry out his purpose, for Zeus controlled fire. While Zeus was not looking, Prometheus “stole some brands of fire from the hearth, which he hid in the stalk of a fennel and sent it down to the earth.” Through this Prometheus gave to man his first knowledge of fire.

But while this story of fire may or may not be true, the use of fire rests entirely with man and his ingenuity. Through his ingenuity man was able to subject fire to his will; making it perform certain of his labors; and to a certain extent making it his servant; although it always did and always will get beyond his control at times.

Our ancestors were not satisfied with preserving the fire which the gods gave them; they tried and succeeded in producing it. One day one of them discovered that by rubbing two sticks together rapidly, the friction would create a fire. It was a most useful discovery. Before long the whole of mankind had learned this trick; others improved on this crude method until step by step men learned that by striking two pieces of flint or other hard mineral together, quicker action was obtained.

All kinds of methods were devised to increase knowledge of producing fire. The early Greeks found out how to catch the rays of the sun on a burning-glass and produce fire; the Romans achieved the same results through the use of mirrors.

In about A.D. 900, an Arab, named Bechel, discovered phosphorus, but it took almost 800 years more for Haukwitz to learn that when phosphorus was brought into friction with sulphur, fire would result. In another hundred years the world was benefited by the invention of the friction match--and since that time about one-half the people have been carrying matches about with them, able thus to start a fire easily any time.

~FIRE A MARK OF CIVILIZATION~

Fire and man’s knowledge of it have had much to do with man’s progress in civilization. Before man had fire, his life and movements were much like those of other animals. When man had learned to make a fire he was free to move and live anywhere and, therefore, people began to cover more territory.

What Would We Do Without Matches?

If one were to ask the man in the street what invention of the nineteenth century is his most constant and invaluable ally he might be mystified for the moment, but the undoubted answer would surely come in the single word “Matches.” These familiar objects, apart from their luxurious use by smokers, are the indispensable servants of mankind from the moment of rising in the morning till the household is wrapped in sleep, and it is to them we turn when disturbed in the hours of darkness.

No doubt “familiarity breeds contempt,” and it is difficult to imagine how man would fare, bereft of his box of matches. It might help the world to realize how much it owes to the inventors of the Lucifer Match, were it possible to cut off the supply of these magic fire producers for only one brief day. It requires no very vivid imagination to picture the consternation and confusion that such a step would produce, and there is a grim humor in wondering how the primitive methods of obtaining a light would serve the public convenience in these days of strenuous hustle.

Seeing that fire has been employed by man since prehistoric days, one would expect that easy means of obtaining it would have been devised in the early ages. We find, however, that until the beginning of the nineteenth century nothing in the nature of a match was available, and the crudest methods were still in use. We know from Virgil that in the reign of the Emperor Titus fire was obtained by rubbing decayed wood with a roll of sulphur between two stones, but it is not till Saxon times that we have evidence of the use of the tinder box with its flint and steel. That this latter was still regarded as something remarkable, as late as the fifteenth century, is proved by its representation in the collar of the Order of the Golden Fleece, which was founded in 1429. Burning glasses had, of course, been employed from the most primitive times, but one can imagine the despair of an early Briton who had to wait for a sunny day before he could boil his kettle.

Incredible as it may seem, it was not a time well within the memory of many people living to-day that matches in anything approaching the form now familiar were offered to the public. The way for their manufacture had been prepared by two discoveries; one by a German who isolated phosphorus in 1669; the other by a Frenchman who produced chlorate of potash in 1786. From this latter date the production of fire was much facilitated, and a few years before Queen Victoria came to the throne, John Walker--a chemist of Stockton-on-Tees--produced the first friction matches of which there is any certain record. These, called “Congreves,” were sold in boxes of fifty for 2/6, and their success soon led others to experiment in match manufacture, so that improvements were rapidly invented and factories sprang up in all parts of the country.

It would be a difficult task to compute accurately the value to the human race of the introduction to general use of this little article. At the present writing, in America the consumption of matches amounts to over a billion of matches a day.

How Matches Are Made.

To-day matches are in such demand that the ingenuity of man has devised a machine which makes complete matches without the help of the human hand.