CHAPTER V

HOW TO SAIL A SMALL BOAT

The first thing you should learn to do if you expect to use a boat, is to learn to swim. A sailboat, properly rigged, well built and intelligently handled, is as safe as a rowboat or a launch and is far safer than any canoe ever built, but under the best of conditions and even with experienced sailors, accidents will at times happen and then the fellow who can swim stands a far better chance than the chap who cannot.

Excellent swimmers are drowned it is true, but that’s in spite of their knowledge, not because of it. Even if you are never upset, never have an accident and are never called upon to save yourself or others, yet the knowledge of how to swim will be mighty valuable. In the first place it will give you and your companions greater confidence, and confidence and self-reliance are big assets when sailing a boat, especially under trying conditions.

But because you _can_ swim it doesn’t follow that you should take to the water whenever an accident occurs. A good sailor always sticks to his ship and you should _never_ forsake your boat, no matter what condition she’s in, until compelled to desert her by her actually sinking under you. A water-logged or capsized boat will float for hours or days and will support several persons and when clinging to an upset or wrecked boat you stand a much better chance of being seen and rescued than when swimming.

Many a man has been drowned by leaving his upset boat and attempting to swim ashore when, by clinging to the craft, he would have been saved. This was the case with two friends of the author. There were three in the boat, all splendid swimmers, and they were capsized in a sudden squall several miles from shore. The occupants easily clambered upon the overturned hull and gave little heed to their predicament, as they knew that several boats and steamers were due to pass the spot where they were shipwrecked within a few hours.

About half-a-mile distant a schooner, which was used as a temporary lightship, was anchored and finally one of the men suggested swimming to it. Feeling confident that he would have no difficulty in reaching the schooner he plunged overboard and swam rapidly away. Presently he turned and called to the others to follow and one of his companions did so, while the other wisely remained on the bottom of the boat.

When about halfway to the schooner the foremost of the two swimmers threw up his hands and went down and a few moments later the other sank, but the sensible one of the trio, who stuck to the boat, was sighted and rescued by a passing craft an hour or two later and was none the worse for his experience.

No matter how well you can swim always remember that any solid object is far safer than the water and _don’t_ resort to swimming unless actually compelled to do so. _Always_ bear in mind that it takes but a very little to support a person in the water—an old pail or bucket held perpendicularly and bottomside up, an open umbrella, an oar, a thwart, a spar, a grating or even a high hat or a derby will serve to keep a human being afloat for a long time.

Almost as important as the ability to swim is the ability to keep one’s head and not get rattled under any and all conditions. The sailor should be able to move and act rapidly, surely and intelligently; he should possess decisiveness and judgment and should know just what to do and how to do it on the spur of the moment. When things go wrong is just the time for you to go right and many a trivial accident has become a tragedy through people losing their heads, tangling ropes or gear, jumping about heedlessly and forgetting just what to do under the circumstances.

In boat sailing of all things make haste slowly and NEVER TAKE CHANCES. You can’t be overcautious in a boat and it is far wiser to run for shelter or to shorten sail too soon or in a moderate wind than to wait too long or to carry too much sail in a hard blow. Wherever sailboats are used for pleasure one may see foolhardy men and boys sailing under full canvas in reefing weather and trying to show off but to the man who knows, such actions do not speak of skill or ability but merely of ignorance and bravado. Don’t mind if such reckless fools laugh at your caution and think you are timid; the chances are that you’ll be sailing about safely long after they are food for the fishes.

Before attempting to learn to sail it is well to know something of the principles of sailing and just why a boat under sail does certain things. Many landsmen cannot understand how a boat can sail _against_ the wind or how it can sail with the wind abeam or blowing from the side without tipping over, but it’s really a very simple matter and if you understand why and how these things are accomplished you’ll be able to handle your boat far better than if you merely learn to do certain things without understanding the reasons for them.

Whenever the wind blows against a boat’s sails it has two distinct effects; one tending to push the boat sideways and ahead, the other to push it over or upset it. The former tendency is desirable and must be encouraged whereas the latter must be overcome or resisted.

The resistance which a boat offers to the upsetting or “heeling” force is termed _stability_ and the amount of stability which a boat possesses depends upon its model, its proportions, its weight and many other factors. Many boats have enough stability to overcome the tendency to upset without any artificial aid, but as a rule sufficient stability can only be obtained by adding some weight or _ballast_ at the bottom of the boat. This may take the form of lead or iron on the keel, a weighted centerboard, or lead, sandbags or other weights in the bottom of the hull.

When a boat is heeled over by the wind the sails act like a lever, with the fulcrum at the water line, while the hull below the water line represents the weight to be pried up. Of course you know that the longer the lever, beyond the fulcrum, as compared to the short end on the other side of the fulcrum, the greater is the power obtained.

Shaded portions indicate leverage of hull against sail. Outlined rectangles show relative stability areas.

Thus the farther a boat tips over the less force can the wind on the sails exert, for with every inch that the boat heels the length of the lever decreases, as will be seen by the accompanying diagram. For this reason a boat tips much more easily when upright than after it has heeled over a bit and for the same reason a shallow or flat-bottomed boat tips more readily than a deep hull.

It would be perfectly feasible to build a boat so deep that it would not tip at all, and likewise a boat could be built so heavy, or with so much ballast, that the leverage of the sails would be unable to heel it in the least. But neither of these schemes would be practical. If the boat was built too deep it would offer so much resistance to the water that the sails could not drive it forward and if built too heavy or if it carried too much ballast, it would be slow, clumsy and the sails and masts might be carried away before the boat moved.

Moreover it is not desirable to prevent a boat from tipping to a certain extent. Many boats sail at their best while heeled at a sharp angle and the tendency to tip also serves as a sort of safety valve by spilling the wind from the sails and warning the sailor that too much sail is being carried and thus serving a very useful purpose. Hence, in order to make boats safely stable without making them heavy, slow or clumsy, various forms of hulls and various methods of ballasting are adopted.

For example, if a boat is made very broad and shallow the result, when tipped, will be almost the same as if the hull was made very deep and narrow but the resistance to the water will be overcome. As the hull is tipped up by the leverage of the masts the upper side acts as a weight which must be lifted, and exerts just as great a counter-leverage as if the weight was under water. But instead of presenting a large surface with its attendant friction to the water the area of the boat’s surface is reduced the more it is tipped.

Such broad, flat hulls are very stiff, up to a certain point, and boats built in this manner are usually very fast when heeling far over, but when they are tipped a single inch beyond a _certain_ point the weight of the raised side acts _with_ the lever and flops the boat over in an instant. When a hull thus shaped is provided with a centerboard or a weighted keel it becomes far more stable. Many of the fastest racing boats are of this type, a form designed to sail the very best when heeled far over with half the bottom out of water. To add to the stability under such conditions the bows and sterns are cut away for a long distance so that when sailing on a level keel the surface in contact with the water is very small, while the further they tip to one side or the other the greater the length is increased.

But in every case, whether stability is obtained by great breadth or _beam_, by extreme depth from deck to keel, by ballast inside or outside, by fin-keel or otherwise, you should remember that the _further under water the ballast is placed the less will be required_. Always bear in mind that ballast or weight on the downward or _lee_ side aids the boat in tipping, whereas the same weight, on the upper side, prevents it and that the weight placed on the high side will exert many times the force of the same weight in the center of the boat.

Often by sitting far out on the upper or _weather_ edge of a boat, she may be sailed in safety through winds that would capsize her if you sat inside the cockpit. If a plank or board was extended out from the weather side and you perched upon that the boat would be still harder to upset and it is by such methods that the natives of the South Seas sail their catamarans and proas at terrific speed and with huge sails out of all proportion to the hulls. Sometimes one may see a “flying proa” tearing along in a perfect gale with half a dozen persons hanging on to the slender _outrigger_ extending from the weather side, and by their weight alone preventing the queer craft from turning turtle.

All the above remarks refer to stability, but there is another factor which must be considered and which is known as _lateral resistance_, or in other words, the resistance offered to the water when moving sideways. A boat might be very stable and yet it might be worthless if it did not possess lateral resistance, for in that case it would merely slide sideways instead of going ahead and a properly designed boat must combine both stability and lateral resistance to the highest possible degree.

When sailing in any direction, save directly before the wind, there is a strong sideways pressure against the sails and unless the boat is provided with some means of overcoming this she will slip sideways or diagonally or will make “leeway,” as a sailor would say. Deep, narrow boats have great lateral resistance but their resistance to the water when moving forward is also great and hence the lateral resistance is usually obtained by means of deep, narrow keels, centerboard or leeboards. The knife-like keel offers little resistance to the water when moving forward but great resistance when moving sideways, while the centerboard may be pulled up entirely when moving forward with a wind from the rear, thus still further reducing the friction against the water.

If the boat possesses stability and lateral resistance and is properly rigged the wind blowing against the sails will have a tendency to force the stern of the craft away from the wind and the bow towards it. To overcome this the rudder must be turned until the pressure of the water against it has enough force to balance the action of the wind on the sails.

A properly rigged boat, if left to herself with rudder loose and sails set, will swing up into the wind of her own accord; in a few moments she will fall off, sail a short distance and again come into the wind and lose headway and will repeat this operation over and over again without danger of upsetting.

If, on the other hand, her sails are not adapted to her, if she is badly designed or improperly rigged, she will sail faster and faster, will fall more and more away from the wind and finally the sail will flop over to the other side and the boat will be upset or mast, sails and rigging will be carried away. Such a boat is a perfect deathtrap and should be avoided by all means.

Always try a new boat or a new rig to see how it will act if the helm is left when sails are set. If the boat comes up in the wind quickly of her own accord you may be sure she will come about readily when required and that she will take care of herself if at any time you are compelled to leave the tiller for a few moments. But don’t condemn the boat if she falls off and sails away as I have described. As a rule this fault lies in the rig rather than in the boat itself and often a slight alteration in the shape or size of the sails or even the position of the mast will make all the difference between a safe and a dangerous boat.

If the sails are too far forward a boat may have a tendency to fall off and take a hard _lee helm_, whereas if too far aft the boat may have such a hard _weather helm_ that it is impossible to prevent her from swinging up into the wind. Then again, the mast and sail may be in the right position and the sail may have its greatest area too far forward or too far aft, or the rudder may be too small. Try various adjustments before deciding the craft is hopeless and strive to have your boat so arranged that when sailing close-hauled a slight pressure must be exerted on the tiller to prevent her from coming into the wind or _luffing_, while just the instant this pressure is released she will swing up in the wind’s eye with the sail fluttering and will hang there indefinitely, merely falling off, coming up again and remaining practically stationary in one place.

To a great many people it appears remarkable that a boat can sail against the wind, but it is a very simple matter indeed and depends upon the same principles which make a kite fly, an aeroplane rise or a windmill turn. In every case the result is brought about by the pressure of the wind upon a curved or angular surface and while the boat and windmill depend upon the wind to move them and the aeroplane produces the wind by moving rapidly through still air, yet the results in each case are identical and the object, unable to move away from the wind moves against it or at right angles to it.

Whenever a moving mass of matter, such as air or water, strikes a curved surface two effects result, the first being to force the object aside, the other to force it ahead by what is known as “reaction.” If a solid object, such as a bullet, strikes a slanting surface it glances off and frequently it loses very little of its force in doing so. The wind, when striking a curved surface, glances off and exerts its force at an angle.

The pressure of this glancing blow and the force exerted by the wind against the surrounding air as it slides off the sail, has a tendency to force the sail, or other surface, ahead. The direction in which the object is forced and the power required to move it depend upon the curve or angle which is presented to the wind.

The broader the angle at which the wind strikes, the less loss of force there is and the greater the power which the wind exerts upon the sail. Thus, when the wind is directly _against_ the sail, very little power is wasted and the whole force drives the boat ahead as none of the wind can glance off. If the boat is brought around until the wind blows from one side and the sail is pulled in until it is at an angle, the wind exerts a combined sideways and forward pressure and the boat sails at right angles to the wind; whereas if the sail is drawn still closer towards the center of the boat and the craft is headed nearer to the wind, the wind skips off the sail producing but little forward or sideways pressure but forcing the boat almost _against_ the direction from which the wind blows. But if the boat is headed _too_ close to the wind and the sail hauled in _too_ near the center of the boat no headway will be made for the wind will then slip off the sail without exerting enough force to move the boat forward. If you will _always_ bear these facts in mind you will find it far easier to learn to sail and you will also understand why you should _always_ let your sail out as far as possible without letting it flutter or “spill” the wind.

1—Before the wind or running free. 2—With wind on the quarter. 3—Beam wind or reaching. 4—Head wind or close hauled. 5—Tacking or beating to windward. 6—Going about with boat carrying a jib. 7—Making a long and short leg. 8—How a wind acts on a boat close hauled. 9—Jibing. 10—Wearing ship. 11—Tacking off the wind to avoid beam seas.

Having thoroughly mastered these simple principles of why a boat sails you can safely start to learn how to handle your boat. If possible, have an experienced sailor go with you when learning; you will find his advice worth more than all the printed directions in the world, but even alone you’ll have no trouble in learning to sail if you take plenty of time, master one thing thoroughly before trying another and use common sense and judgment. Before leaving shore or the anchorage be sure that everything is in the boat and in the proper place. There should be oars and oarlocks, a bailer, an anchor and plenty of line and all ropes should be neatly coiled where they are free to run out without becoming kinked, caught or tangled.

Make it a point _always_ to keep the sheet clear and _never tie it or make it fast when sailing_. More accidents to sailboats have resulted from a tangled or fast sheet than from any other one cause.

When hoisting sail the sheet should be left slack enough to allow the sail to swing freely from side to side, but it should not be entirely free or the sail may swing out at right angles and strike some neighboring boat or obstruction, or it may even wrap itself about the mast and cause no end of trouble.

It is best to commence sailing “on the wind” or with the wind from one side or partly over the stern, for this is the easiest and safest kind of sailing. In this position most boats sail their best and obtain their greatest speed. If the wind is directly from one side the sail should be eased off until the forward edge commences to flutter, but if the wind is over the quarter the sail must be trimmed in order to be at as nearly a right angle to the wind as possible, as shown in the diagrams.

If, when sailing with a beam or quarter wind, you wish to turn about you should always haul in your sheet, push the tiller to leeward—away from the wind—and bring the boat up into the wind until the sail swings to the other side, when you may gradually ease-off the sheet until sailing as before.

If you attempt to turn about without doing this the sail will swing violently across from one side to the other, or in sailors’ parlance, will _jibe_ and while an experienced hand will jibe a boat with perfect safety an amateur is very likely to capsize or to carry away masts and rigging.

It may seem at first as if sailing right before the wind would be the easiest thing to accomplish, but this is a great mistake. To sail before the wind, save in very light airs and with a small sail, requires a great deal of care and not a little skill.

A great many boats have a tendency to _yaw_ or to swing wildly from side to side when thus sailing and when this is the case the sail is very likely to jibe with serious results. Even if this does not happen the sail may bag out and make the boat steer hard or the boom may “kick up” and become almost unmanageable. If allowed to swing out too far the boat may refuse to obey its helm and will swing around to the wind, regardless of your efforts to keep it on its course, while if kept in too closely the wind may catch it on the wrong side and jibe it suddenly.

In a heavy sea there is the added danger of the boom catching in a wave and “tripping” and either upsetting the boat or jibing as a result. If your boat yaws, if the boom kicks up badly, or if there is much of a wind, don’t try to sail before the wind but sail partly side to it and go about every little while and thus zigzag towards your destination as shown in the sketch. If, while sailing before the wind or with a beam wind, you should desire to alter your course and bring the sail over the opposite side, _don’t_ turn _away_ from the wind and jibe the sail, but haul in the sheet, turn into the wind and swing about in a circle until the sail is on the opposite side and you are headed in the desired direction. This manner of turning about when sailing _free_ or before the wind, is called _wearing ship_ and to perform the evolution neatly and in a sailor-like manner will require some practice, for the sail must be hauled in and the helm put over at the same time and in perfect unison.

If the helm is put down too quickly the sail will flap and thrash and the boat may not come about, whereas if the sail is hauled in too rapidly and the helm is not thrown over promptly the boat may be tipped dangerously. Sometimes, however, it becomes necessary to jibe, while at other times a sudden shift of wind or some other cause may make a boat jibe despite every effort to prevent it.

When it becomes necessary to jibe, or if it is seen that it cannot be avoided, haul in the sheet just as rapidly as possible and just as soon as the boom passes the center of the boat pay out the sheet smoothly and quickly so that there will be no sudden jerk or pull as the wind swings the sail over. If there is much wind blowing it is a wise plan to lower the peak of the sail before jibing and when sailing before the wind dropping the peak will often make the boat sail better.

In sailing before the wind it is very important to have the boat ballasted or “trimmed” correctly. If there is too much weight near the bow the boat will invariably yaw and may bury her nose and swamp herself. On the other hand, if there is too much weight near the stern she may steer badly, but this is never as bad nor as dangerous as having her _down by the head_. If the boom has a tendency to jibe, to swing badly or to kick up, it often helps a great deal to bring down the side over which the boom swings, by placing passengers, cargo or ballast on that side. If you are using a centerboard boat the board should be hauled up when before the wind and many boats will sail better with a beam or quarter wind when the board is half up, but the only way to determine when the board should be partly up, fully up, or down is to experiment. Some boats come about more quickly with the board up; others refuse to come round unless it is down, and some sail better with the board down, even when dead before the wind. When tacking or sailing on the wind the board should _always_ be down, however.

As a rule a boat should be trimmed so that the stern is a little deeper than the bow and while the effect of a badly trimmed boat is more evident when sailing before the wind, yet in sailing on the wind a little fault in the proper distribution of weight may make a vast difference in the behavior of the boat.

When you have become thoroughly accustomed to handling your boat on the wind you may try tacking or sailing to windward or against the wind. As I have already explained no boat will sail _directly against_ the wind, but by sailing as close to it as possible in one direction, then turning and sailing as close as you can in the opposite direction and repeating the operation at intervals progress may be made directly towards the wind.

This is known as “tacking” or “beating” and while it requires considerable skill and practice to beat to windward to the best advantage yet it is not difficult to learn to tack and one can only become proficient by practice and by becoming thoroughly familiar with the boat.

Some boats will sail far closer to the wind than others and every boat has a certain point at which she will sail to windward to the best advantage. The nearer the boat is headed into the wind the closer or “flatter” the sail must be “trimmed” or hauled in and there is _always_ a point at which the vessel loses headway and falls off the wind. For this reason it is a waste of time to try to sail too close to the wind and the objective point will be reached far quicker by heading off more and obtaining greater speed and making frequent tacks, than by attempting to head nearer the direction you desire to go and then losing almost as much as you gain by the boat’s sliding to leeward.

The idea is to keep your boat pointed as near the wind as she will sail well and the sails should be trimmed in until quite flat each time you tack. Then, as the boat swings over on the other tack, the sail should be eased off a bit to obtain headway and the boat should be again headed towards the wind until the edge of the sail begins to flutter and wrinkle. This shows you are sailing as close to the wind as advisable and to sailors it is known as sailing _full and by_. Every few moments the boat may be brought a trifle closer to the wind and then eased off so that the sail is always filled and yet the edge, by its fluttering, shows the helmsman that the sheet is trimmed properly.

Some boats have a remarkable power of “eating into” the wind in this way and although headed quite a bit off the wind will progress almost directly into the wind’s eye. If the wind is quite stiff a great deal may also be gained by _luffing up_ from time to time, or in other words bringing the boat directly into the wind, allowing her to shoot ahead for a short distance and before she loses headway bringing her off until she catches the wind again.

A great deal of the skill in tacking depends upon one’s ability to judge just when to come about on the other tack. Very few boats will sail equally well on both tacks and as soon as you find on which tack your boat sails best you can make your longest tacks or “lays” on that tack and make shorter tacks when sailing with the wind on the other bow.

To make too many short tacks is a mistake for each time you go about you lose a trifle of what you have gained, but to make tacks which are too long is also a mistake, for you travel a great deal further than is necessary in this way. As a rule a _long and a short leg_ is the best method to follow. This consists of making long tacks, or lays, close to the wind and then going about and making shorter and quicker reaches in the other direction a little farther off the wind. All of these maneuvers are illustrated in the diagrams and by studying these you will readily see just how the boat may be sailed directly to windward.

When ready to go about on a new tack the boat should always be eased off a little, the sails loosened lightly and as soon as the speed increases the rudder should be thrown hard over, the _tiller being pushed away from the wind_. As the boat wheels about the sheet should be hauled in briskly until it begins to fill on the opposite side. Then ease it off gradually until good headway is made and trim in and head up to the wind as before.

When tacking with other persons in the boat you should always signal before going about or tacking by crying, “_Ready about_” and as the boat is brought into the wind, call, “_Hard-a-lee_” and at these words your passengers should duck their heads as the boom swings over or should shift their seats to the other side of the boat if she heels over very much.

Some boats have a tendency to remain hanging in the wind when brought about or else come into the wind and fall off on the same tack again. This is known as _missing stays_ and when it occurs you should swing the boat’s head around by an oar over the stern or hold the boom or sail far over to windward until the bow swings around. If the boat has a centerboard she may often be brought about quickly by raising the board as you swing her into the wind and then dropping it again as the sail fills away on the other tack.

If the boat carries a jib she will seldom miss stays if the jib is hauled flat as you go about and is kept sheeted to windward until the other sails fill away on the other tack. Then the windward sheet of the jib should be eased off and the leeward sheet should be trimmed in as shown in the illustration.

Usually a well built boat, if properly trimmed and rigged, will seldom miss stays except in heavy seas or in a very light wind or a strong current and often a boat under reefed sails will come about more easily and will sail to windward far better than under full canvas.

Remember that a boat’s sheets can be trimmed flatter in light winds and smooth waters than in rough seas and strong winds and that even a comparatively small sea will cause the sail to swing and spill the wind and thus lose headway.

Don’t forget that when a boat, sailing close-hauled is to be turned so as to sail off the wind the sheets must be eased off as she swings about and in the same way a boat sailing free must have her sheets hauled in as you bring her up into the wind.

The foregoing directions apply to boats with one sail only and it is best to learn to sail with such a craft and then you will find it much easier to learn to handle a boat with headsails or jibs.

Many small boats have the jib sheet attached to a sliding block or ring which can move from side to side on a traveler and when thus arranged the jib requires little or no attention when tacking.

As a rule, however, the jib has two sheets, one on either side, which lead aft and in tacking these require attention. As the boat is turned into the wind the lee sheet is let go, the jib flutters and the instant the mainsail begins to fill on the other tack the jib sheet should be trimmed flat as before, and then, as the boat pays off on the new tack the sheets may be trimmed to obtain the best results.

One advantage of a jib is that in case the boat misses stays, or fails to come about readily, her head may be brought around by keeping the lee jib sheet trimmed until the boat swings around and if the main boom is held far towards the lee side at the same time the boat will be almost certain to pay off.

If for any reason she refuses and commences to move backwards don’t forget that the tiller _must be turned in the same direction as that in which you wish the head of the boat to go_, or in other words, in exactly the opposite direction to that in which you would turn it if moving ahead.

If a boat misses stays in heavy wind or squalls, ease off the main sheet, lower the peak a little and trim the jib to the windward. Then if the boat does not gather headway but heels, lower the mainsail at once. When sailing on the wind with a jib and mainsail, trim the lee jib sheet to get the full benefit of the sail and if running before the wind either lower the jib or “wing it out” on the opposite side to the mainsail by means of a light sprit, a boat-hook or an oar, so it will catch the wind.

When you are thoroughly familiar with sailing before the wind, on the wind and against the wind in light breezes and smooth water, you should practice coming to a mooring or a landing. The ability to make a good landing marks a good sailor and nothing looks worse or bespeaks poorer seamanship than to make a clumsy landing.

Never attempt to make a landing or a mooring until you have learned just how far your boat will luff or “shoot” ahead when brought into the wind. By trying a number of times you can soon determine this and a mighty good plan is to practice luffing up to a stake or a float in the water.

When approaching a mooring or landing try to approach it from the leeward side; sail as nearly into the wind as possible and when you are near enough so that you think the boat will shoot to the mooring by her own momentum, bring her right into the wind’s eye and ease off the sheet so that the sail flutters and then steer the boat as close to the mooring as you can.

_Never_ attempt to shoot the boat to the windward side of a mooring or landing if it can be avoided, but come up with the mooring or landing _on your windward side_.

If conditions are such that you cannot approach the mooring or landing from the lee side and you are _compelled_ to run for it before the wind or with a beam wind, there are two methods which may be followed. One is to lower sail and let the boat run to the mooring under bare poles and the other is to ease off the sheet until the sail offers no surface to the wind. When coming _before_ the wind the former method is the only right one and in order not to approach too rapidly it is a good plan to drop most of the sail long before the landing is reached and leave just the upper portion raised so as to catch the wind and carry the boat along very slowly. Then, when close to the mooring, drop this and drift slowly to the spot where you are to make fast.

If you are using a boat with a jib that sail should be lowered as you approach your moorings and you should come to the place under mainsail alone, as a jib as always in the way when going forward to make fast, and, moreover, it will frequently catch a puff of wind and force the head of the boat off at just the wrong instant.

If you are coming up to a dock or wharf don’t run to it head-on if it can be avoided, but run slanting towards it or alongside, for in that case if your boat has too much headway it will merely strike the dock a glancing blow and do little, if any, damage, whereas the same blow head-on might start a plank or timber or cause other serious damage.

These remarks apply to fairly good sized sailboats and if you are sailing in a very small open boat it is often easier to take in sail and row to a mooring than to sail to it.

When getting away from a mooring or dock some skill and practice are required, especially if in waters where there are numerous other boats. If you are on the lee side of a dock it is very easy to hoist sail, trim the sheets flat, shove off the bow and start away; but if on the windward side and you hoist sail the wind will force your craft against the dock and make getting under way very difficult. At such times the best plan is to row or pole your boat out from the dock before hoisting sail and then get under way in open water.

If at a mooring or an anchorage the boat’s head may be swung off the wind by hauling in the anchor from the _lee_ side or by holding the sail far over to windward, but in every case you should look about, decide on your course and make a mental note of the position of neighboring craft before getting away from your moorings.

When coming to an anchorage have the anchor ready to drop and the anchor line coiled so it will run out readily. When you reach the spot selected, luff up, allow the boat to lose her headway and then drop your anchor by _casting_ it _ahead_ of the boat.

If you cast your anchor out while the boat is still moving ahead your boat will overrun it and it may not get a good hold on the bottom, to say nothing of the danger of getting the line entangled with the flukes. If coming to an anchorage _before_ the wind, drop the sails, and wait until the boat loses headway and if _on the wind_ either lower sails or let the sheet flow.

_Never_, under any circumstances, allow the sheet to run out entirely for there is never any necessity of allowing the sail to swing out beyond right angles to the boat. If it swings farther it becomes a source of danger.

_Never_ walk along the lee side of the boat when the sheet is loose and the sail is swinging, but move on the windward side and avoid any danger of being knocked overboard by the swinging boom and flapping sail.

When you have learned to sail in all directions in smooth weather and have learned how to get under way and how to come to moorings you should put in some time learning how to reef quickly.

Reefing consists in shortening sail by tying a portion of it to the mast or spar and small ropes known as _reef points_ are sewed into the sail for this purpose. Some boats have sails with only one set of reef points; others have two, and others have three or more, but when a sail is reefed the reefs should be taken one at a time beginning with the one nearest the mast or spar.

At the end of the row of _reef points_ near the free edge of the sail there is a hole or eyelet known as a _cringle_ and as this is on the _leech_ of the sail it is called the _leech cringle_. A similar cringle is on the opposite edge or _luff_ of the sail. This applies to boom-and-gaff, lug or other sails with a boom or spar at the lower edge. Through these cringles lines known as _earrings_ are passed and these may be left in the cringles permanently or they may be taken out when not in use, as you prefer.

A—Sail before reefing. B—Sail after reefing.

To reef the sail bring the boat into the wind, trim the sheet in until the boom cannot swing beyond the sides of the boat, lower the sail about halfway and then lash the first luff cringle to the boom with the earring, tying it in a reefing knot which can be readily cast off. Then pass the luff earring through its cringle, pass it through the hole in the boom made for that purpose and haul the sail out as taut as possible and make the earring fast.

Then beginning at the luff cringle, roll the sail neatly to the first reef points and tie each reef point in turn around the bottom of the sail where it is fastened to the boom or, if there is no space to pass the points between sail and boom, tie them around the boom, being very careful to use square or reef knots when doing so.

When all the points are tied hoist away the sail and you are ready to proceed. If a second reef is required repeat the operation with the second row of points and cringles. Then, when the wind lulls, one reef after another can be shaken out by untying the reef points, casting off the leech earring and then casting off the luff earring and hoisting the sail until taut.

Don’t wait too long before reefing. If the boat heels badly on the wind, if it labors, if it takes a hard helm or if the wind is puffy, squally or strong, reef at once. It’s far easier to shake out your reefs if the wind falls than it is to take in a reef when the wind is blowing hard and a heavy sea is running.

Finally, when you come to your moorings, to your landing-place or to an anchorage, never leave your boat with the sails loose, slovenly and unfurled. In the first place it looks badly and stamps you as a poor sailor; in the second place it soon ruins the sail and finally, if a hard wind comes up, the sail is liable to become loose, to catch the wind and either tear the sail to pieces or capsize the boat.

Make it an invariable rule to do things in a regular routine every time you come to a mooring or leave it. As soon as you are fast to your mooring lower the sails, trim the boom amidships, roll the sail neatly and tie it to the boom by short pieces of line or by one long rope wrapped around and around it. _Don’t_ commence furling the sail at the outer end of the boom, but place the first line or “stop” close to the mast and keep pulling out the excess slack as you work outwards along the boom and you will soon find it a very simple, easy thing to furl your sails very neatly.

When all is snugly furled, hoist away until the sail is lifted slightly and either place a _crotch_ under it, lower it and draw the sheet taut, or else fasten a rope from the boom to both sides of the boat so the sail cannot swing as the boat sways and rolls to the waves.

It is a good plan to have a sail cover of waterproof cloth or heavy canvas with which to cover the furled sail and by using this your sails will always be protected from rain and mildew and will remain strong, white and in good shape.

Finally, see that everything about the boat is in its place, that all lines and ropes are neatly coiled and that nothing is left to swing, rattle or work loose; that the centerboard, if the boat has one, is pulled up in its case and secured; that the tiller is lashed amidships, or is slipped out of the rudder head and that everything is snug and shipshape.