CHAPTER III

PARTS OF BOATS

Nearly everyone knows that the body of the boat is called the hull, but a great many people, even those who live by the sea or who are accustomed to the use of boats, know very little about the various parts of the hull or the proper names for the different portions of it.

The principal parts of a small boat’s hull are: the _bow_, the _stern_, the _deck_ (if not an open boat); the _keel_, the _thwarts_, the _bilge_, the _bottom_, the _topsides_ and the _gunwales_. Each of these is made up of various pieces or parts, and to portions of each different names are given. The _bow_ is the forward end of the boat; the _stern_ is the rear end; the _deck_ is the portion on top or the part which covers the open portion; the _keel_ is the very bottom piece which extends from bow to stern; the _thwarts_ are the seats; the _bilge_ is the bottom close to the keel on either side; the _bottom_ proper is the portion between the keel and the sides of the boat; the _topsides_ are the sides above the curve of the bottom; the _gunwales_ are the upper edges of the topsides.

The extreme forward edge of the bow is known as the _cutwater_; the extreme end of the stern is known as the _counter_ or _transom_; the curve from bow to stern, horizontally, is called the _sheer_; the sides above the water are known as _freeboard_; the inner edge of the decks when provided with a perpendicular edge is the _combing_; the open space within the edge of the decks is known as the _cockpit_; the extreme forward portion of the boat is called the _peak_; the central part of the craft is the _waist_; the forward part of the hull near the stem and below the water line is the _entrance_; the after part, on the sides beneath the water is the _run_. In every boat, no matter how large or small she may be, these parts are always the same.

The various parts used in building a boat are very numerous in some craft and are few in others, depending upon the size and model of the boat, but in every case similar parts have the same names and are used for the same purposes.

The upright piece, to which the sides are attached at the bow is the _stem_ and when this is made in two parts, as is often the case on large boats, the outer piece is known as the _false stem_. This stem is attached to the keel by a _knee_ and when a second piece is attached to the keel to thicken and strengthen it, the piece is called the _keelson_. At the stern the upright timber is called the _sternpost_ and to this the transom, the broad flat piece at the end of the stern, is fastened. From the stem to the transom extends the _planking_, the plank next to the keel on each side being called the _garboard strake_ and the ones at the top of the sides being known as _top strakes_, _sheer strakes_ or _upper strakes_. From keel to the tops of the sides curved or bent pieces are fastened which are known as _ribs_ and these are attached to the keel-piece and the decks by _knees_. Sometimes an inner lining is placed on top of the ribs to make the inside of the boat smooth and this is known as the _ceiling_ while the pieces that extend across from side to side and which support the decks are called _deck timbers_. These are the principal parts found in every boat of round-bottomed construction, but in flat-bottomed boats there are no real ribs, no bilge nor garboard strakes, no keel and no real sternpost, owing to the form and method of construction.

In a flat-bottomed boat the bottom runs across from side to side without any bilge; the entire sides are practically freeboard; straight braces or timbers replace ribs; the keel is replaced by a false keel or _rubbing strake_ and, except in large sized boats, the transom is held in position by the sides and bottom and no stern post is required.

In form and design the various parts of boats vary as much, or even more, than the boats themselves and there is an almost endless variety of bows, sterns, counters, etc., not to mention the forms of rudders, the variations in sheer, and other proportions of form, lines, run, freeboard, etc.

Even in one type of boat there may be a great many forms of bows or sterns in use, many designed merely to add to the appearance of the craft, others to add speed, others to make the boat drier, others to adapt it better to sailing or rowing, as the case may be; and still others to afford better facilities for using certain types of rig, gear or fishing-tackle.

The forms of bows and sterns are so numerous that to name or describe them all would require a volume, but they may all be grouped under a comparatively limited number of types, the others being merely modifications or combinations of these.

1—Straight bow. 2—Round bow. 3—Clipper bow. 4—Dory bow. 5—Whaleboat bow. 6—Canoe bow. 7—Spoon bow. 8—Square stern. 9—Overhanging stern. 10—Whaleboat stern. 11—Dory stern. 12—Round stern. 13—Sharp or “pinkey” stern.

The commonest and most important forms of bows are as follows:

_Straight bows_, in which the stem is perpendicular to the keel; _round bows_, in which the stem is curved or rounded from keel to deck; _clipper bows_, in which the stem is concave or hollowed in outline; _raking_ or _dory bows_ in which the stem is set at an angle to the keel; _whaleboat bows_ which are rounded or curved and are also at an angle; _canoe bows_ which are like the round bows but more convex, and _spoon bows_ which have no true stem but sweep in a gradual curve from the bottom of the boat to the deck.

Among the more typical sterns we find: _Square_ or _straight sterns_, in which the sternpost is perpendicular and the counter is broad and flat; _overhanging sterns_, in which the counter is carried out beyond the sternpost and overhangs the water; _dory sterns_, in which the sternpost is at an angle and has a V-shaped counter; _whaleboat sterns_ which are sharp and shaped like the bow; _round sterns_, in which the sides are carried around in a curve or half-circle with no transom; and _sharp sterns_ or _pinkey sterns_ which are sharp like the stern of a whaleboat, but instead of being curved are merely angular or perpendicular.

Each of these forms of bows and sterns possesses qualities which adapt it to one purpose more than another and in selecting a boat you should bear this in mind. Straight or round bows throw a larger bow wave than the whaleboat or clipper types and have a tendency to bury the bows in heavy seas; whaleboat or dory bows cut through the waves, but give great buoyancy or lifting power to the craft, thus preventing it from burying the forward part in the water; while spoon bows pound and slap in heavy seas and are principally of value for racing boats or for use in calm waters.

Even the sterns have an important effect upon a boat’s abilities and seaworthiness. A square stern will drag a great deal of water behind it when traveling rapidly and with a following sea is liable to take in water, or to be “pooped,” as the sailors would say. Round sterns with an overhang are also bad in a seaway and often make a boat slow in coming about or turning; transom sterns with an overhang are better, while the sharp-pointed pinkey or whaleboat sterns prevent a following sea from entering the boat and leave a clean wake, but owing to the fact that there is no overhang and that the entire height of the boat is brought broadside to the water when turning, they are not so quick in maneuvering as a stern with a good overhang. Perhaps the best all-around stern is one with a good overhang, a sharp run and a small counter: in other words, a sort of combination of the common overhand stern and the whaleboat type.

In the planking, boats vary a great deal, and there are many different methods of making the sides and bottom. Even boats of the same form, for the same uses and with the same style of bow and stern may be made in very different ways. One method is to place the planks so that the edges join and there is a uniform, smooth surface, with all the planks running from bow to stern. This is known as _smooth-skin_ or _carvel planking_. Another style is to let the boards overlap slightly; this is known as _clinker construction_ or _lap-streak_ planking. Other boats are planked with very narrow strips fastened one above the other, edge to edge, while still others are covered with two or more layers of thin boards placed diagonally from keel to gunwales and known as _diagonal planking_. For light racing boats the latter type is admirable for it is strong, light, tight and stiff, but it is difficult to repair, it is expensive and for ordinary use has no advantages. Clinker-built boats are excellent when new, but a broken or injured plank is difficult to replace, leaks are hard to stop and it has no advantages over the carvel planking which is the commonest of all forms of boat-building.

Still another matter to be considered when selecting a boat is whether you should use a keel or a centerboard craft. Every boat, in order to sail well, must have a portion which projects below the bottom and which will prevent the craft from sliding sideways or making “leeway” on the water when the wind is from the side or when sailing against the wind. This projection may be a _keel_, which is an immovable portion of the boat itself; it may be a _centerboard_ which is a board which can be raised or lowered at will from the center of the boat, or it may be a _leeboard_ which is merely hung over the side opposite the wind and is shifted as the boat tacks or goes about.

Leeboards are clumsy makeshifts and while they are used on large vessels in some countries, as in Holland and Scandinavia, they are a great nuisance and very unsatisfactory on anything but canoes and rowboats which are sailed occasionally and on which either keels or centerboards would be inconvenient.

No one has yet decided definitely whether or not keels or centerboards are the better, although the matter has been discussed, tried and thrashed out for years. As a matter of fact each has its advantages and disadvantages, each is adapted to certain types of boats and to certain conditions and each has its adherents who have no faith in the other type.

Personally, I think the keel boat the better for deep water use where there is a likelihood of heavy weather and yet many of the Gloucester fishing-smacks and many yachts which have won ocean races are of the centerboard type. For shallow waters or where there are reefs, sandbars, shoals or mud-flats keel boats are a nuisance and centerboards are practically a necessity. Where boats are to be hauled on beaches centerboard boats are really the only kind to use, for keel boats will not stand upright and cut deeply into the sand. Flat-bottomed boats are nearly always of the centerboard type; whaleboats have centerboards, and yet catboats and other round-bottomed boats are made in both types.

Keel boats are roomier than those with centerboards for there is no space occupied by the centerboard and its case; they are less liable to capsize, and if made with the same proportions as centerboard boats they are as dry, seaworthy and handy. As a rule, however, the keel craft are much narrower and deeper than those equipped with centerboards and many of them are almost like a plank set on edge. These are stable enough, but they are wet, uncomfortable and hard to handle.

The advantages of the centerboard are that when sailing before the wind or when rowing the board may be lifted and much less resistance to the water will then result and consequently more speed may be gained. When in shallow water the centerboard may be raised or lowered according to the depth of the water, and if a sandbar or reef is struck little injury will result, as the board is free to move up when it strikes an obstruction, whereas a keel boat under the same conditions might be badly injured.

The objections to a centerboard are the difficulties in keeping the case and trunk of the board from leaking, the space it occupies, the necessity of raising or lowering it according to varying conditions and the slight, very slight, chance of losing the board and thus becoming helpless.

1—Section of a keel boat. 2—Section of a centerboard boat. 3—Section of a fin keel boat. 4—Portion of a keel boat’s hull. 5—Boat with centerboard. 6—Boat with leeboard. 7-9—Forms of rudders for keel boats. 8-10—Forms of rudders for centerboard boats.

Centerboards are not confined to small boats as many think, but large coasting vessels and even three-masted schooners are often built with them, which proves that they have many great advantages. Some boats are built in a sort of combination keel and centerboard method, in which a moderate keel is provided and a centerboard is used as well, while within comparatively recent years the _fin-keel_ type of boat has been evolved. In these the hull is proportioned like that of a centerboard boat but the keel is merely a large fin or sheet of metal carrying a mass of lead or iron at its lower edge. All things being equal, the best boat for ordinary use is the centerboard type and for small boats, or the amateur’s use, they are far superior to keel boats of any sort.

Most small boats are steered by means of a rudder and tiller, the rudder being a wooden or metal affair submerged at the stern and the tiller consisting of a handle at the rudder’s upper end. Some rudders are hung or fastened to the counter and can be easily taken off or “unshipped,” while others are under the counter and are fastened to the sternpost with the upper end coming up through the boat or the deck. There are various forms of rudders: some long and extending out for a considerable distance in the rear of the boat, and others high and narrow, but the purpose of all is the same and the rudder is always designed to present an area sufficient to swing the boat around readily or to steer it without using too great force. Large boats are usually steered by gears connecting the rudder to a wheel; as the handling of a tiller connected directly to the rudder of a large vessel would be a very difficult task indeed.

As, in order to turn a boat to the right, the tiller must be moved to the left, the terms used by sailors in steering boats are often confusing to landsmen. For example, if a sailor wants a boat turned to the left, or to _port_, as it’s called, he will say, “Starboard the helm,” or, in other words, push the tiller to the _starboard_ or right-hand side, and vice versa. It is not so bad when steering with a tiller, but when steering with a wheel the beginner is very apt to do the wrong thing and turn the wheel _to the right_ when he wants to go _to the right_ and _to the left_, or _port_, when he wants to go to that direction, and to simplify matters many boats are now arranged so that the wheel is turned in the direction one really wants to go.

This makes it very easy when steering for oneself, but if someone is directing the course and sings out the orders in true sailor fashion the steersman has to remember and _port_ his helm when he is told to _starboard_ it and thus the confusion is just as bad as ever. For this reason the beginner should use a tiller if possible; for that matter, there is no advantage in a wheel in boats less than thirty or forty feet in length.

1—Eyebolt. 2—Block. 3—Hook block. 4—Ring block. 5—Sister or fiddle block. 6—Snatch block. 7—Cheek block. 8, 9—Fairleaders. 10—Whip purchase. 11—Whip and runner. 12—Long tackle. 13—Gun tackle. 14—Luff tackle. 15—Watch tackle. 16—Cleats. 17—Chocks. 18—Bitts. 19—Turnbuckles. 20—Travelers. 21—Dead eyes. 22—Section of boat to show parts (round bottom). 23—Section of boat to show parts (flat bottom). 24—External parts of boat. 25—Parts of boat (top view). 26—Carvel planking. 27—Clinker planking. 28—Strip planking. 29—Flat bottom planking. 30—V-bottom planking. 31—Diagonal planking.

On every sailboat there are a certain number of appliances which are unfamiliar to landsmen but which you should become accustomed to before attempting to handle a boat. There are _blocks_, _tackle_, _chocks_, _fairleaders_, _cleats_, _turnbuckles_, _eyebolts_ and _travelers_ among the deck fittings. Each of these has its use and one should be perfectly familiar with them. _Blocks_ are wooden or metal objects containing rollers or wheels known as _sheaves_ through which ropes are run to enable them to be hauled tight without great friction. _Cheek-blocks_ are half blocks which bolt or attach to a mast, spar, or other object. _Sister-blocks_ have two sheaves, one above the other, in a single shell. _Tail-blocks_ are blocks with a rope or hook at one end by which they may be hung to spars, etc. _Snatch-blocks_ are blocks arranged so that one side may be opened to allow a rope to be passed over the sheave without running it through and there are _patent-blocks_ which will hold a rope securely in any position by means of a grip.

Blocks and ropes together are known as _tackles_ and the blocks used may be single, double, triple or fourfold, according to the number of sheaves they contain. A _luff-tackle_ has a single and a double block with one end of the rope fast to the single block and the hauling end leading from the double block.

A _gun-tackle_ consists of two single blocks with one end of the rope fast to the upper block and the hauling part passing down from the upper block.

A _watch-tackle_ is a tackle used to haul the rope which is rove through another tackle and a _whip-purchase_ has a single block only.

The purpose of the tackle is to increase one’s power and the more sheaves there are and the more times the rope is passed through the blocks the more the power obtained; but as in every case where power is increased, speed is lost and to hoist a sail with a tackle with several sheaves requires more time than to do the same work with a single-sheave block. For this reason the simplest tackle which will enable you to perform the work without undue exertion is the one you should use.

_Fairleaders_ are sheaves or rollers which are screwed or bolted to the decks or other parts of the boat and through which ropes are run in order that the ropes may be carried around curves or at right angles. _Chocks_ are metal or wooden appliances in the form of notches and are used where ropes pass over the edge of a boat to hold them in one position. _Cleats_ are devices for holding a rope without tying it and are very useful and numerous on boats. They are either of metal or wood and by winding the rope over them it may be held securely and yet can be thrown off at a moment’s notice. _Turnbuckles_ are metal arrangements for tightening ropes, wires or chains and have hooks or eyes at the ends with screw-threads which may be drawn together or separated by turning the central portion of the turnbuckle. On small boats they are seldom used, but on large and medium-sized craft they are very necessary. _Eyebolts_ are eyes bolted or screwed in position and to them turnbuckles, ropes, blocks or other objects are fastened, while _travelers_ are metal rods over which blocks, rings or things slide or “travel.” _Travelers_ are usually placed at the stern of single-sailed boats for the tackle of the sheet, the rope which controls the sail, to slide on, and they are also used on masts for the sail to slide up and down upon when it is raised or lowered, as well as in many other places.

A great many people who have used boats or have traveled on them speak of a vessel’s _rigging_ without knowing what the rigging really is. In the same way they speak of the “ropes” of a ship and while both terms may be correct in a way, yet to a sailor the terms would mean nothing definite. _Rigging_ comprises all the ropes, sails, stays, halyards and in fact, everything above the decks which has anything to do with the sail plan or _rig_ of a boat, but to sailors there are two definite types of rigging, even in the smallest craft. These are the standing rigging and the running rigging. The latter comprises only the various ropes, lines, etc., which move when the vessel is in use, while the _standing rigging_ consists of all the permanent ropes, stays and other things which remain stationary. To enumerate the various individual parts of the standing and running rigging of a large vessel would require a great deal of space and would be of little value to the person who is interested only in small boats, but there are certain portions of the rigging which occur on every boat and which every boatman should know by heart.

As a matter of fact, there are very few “ropes” so-called, even on a full-rigged ship, for what appear as ropes to a landsman are known by specific names to sailors. Even on a small boat there are few ropes which are spoken of as such and nothing so loudly proclaims the landlubber as to speak of a _stay_, _halyard_ or _sheet_ as a “rope.”

The _halyards_ are the ropes which hoist the sails and they vary in number and name according to the type of sails used. As a rule there are two to each sail and known as the _throat halyards_ and _peak halyards_. (This refers only to fore-and-aft sails, see Chapter IV). The _throat halyard_ being the one which hoists the edge of the sail nearest the mast, while the _peak halyard_ raises the outer edge of the sail. Where sails have no gaff or piece of wood at the upper edge only one halyard is used.

A—Jib halyard. B—Downhaul. C—Throat halyard. D—Peak halyard. E—Topping lift. F—Main sheet. G—Jib sheet.

The _sheet_ is the line which is attached to the outer extremity of the sail and is controlled by the man sailing the boat and its purpose is to hold the sail in any desired position and to enable the sailor to pull the sail in or to let it out, according to the direction of the wind and the course sailed.

_Downhauls_ are ropes used in pulling down sails and are just the opposite of halyards and on small boats they are seldom necessary. _Topping lifts_ are ropes which lead from the masthead to the end of boom to support the latter when the sail is lowered and they are usually so arranged that they may be hauled up or let down to raise or lower or _top_ the boom. _Lazy jacks_ are light lines extending from the mast head, or near it, to the boom and are used to prevent the sail from falling or bagging loose when lowered. They are seldom used on very small boats. _Brails_ are ropes extending to the after edge of the sail by means of which the sail may be gathered close to the mast ready for furling.

1—Polemast. 2—Mast with topmast. 3—Mast with topmast and topgallant mast. 4—Bowsprit with jib boom. 5—Pole bowsprit. 6—Foremast. 7—Mainmast. 8—Mizzen mast. 9—Jigger or spanker mast.

A—Forestay. B—Backstays. C—Shrouds or side stays. D—Topmast stay. E—Fore topmast stay. F—Jib stay. F′—Foretopgallant stay. G—Flying jib stay. H—Fore royal stay. I—Mast or lower mast. J—Trestle or cross trees. K—Top mast. L—Topgallant mast. M—Topmast cap. N—Topmast trestle or cross trees. O—Lowermast cap. P—Royal mast. Q—Futtock shrouds. R—Ratlines. S—Spreader.

BT—Bowsprit. JB—Jib boom. FJB—Flying jib boom. BS—Bobstays. DS—Martingale or dolphin striker. MBR—Martingale back ropes. JBS—Jib boom martingale stays. FJBS—Flying jib boom martingale stays.

All these are parts of the _running rigging_ while the _standing rigging_, in its simplest form, consists of _stays_ which are ropes or wires stretched from the top of the mast to the hull to keep the mast in position, or which extend from the top of the mast to the bowsprit and from the bowsprit to the stem to keep the bowsprit in its proper place. The stays from the mast to the bowsprit are known as _forestays_ and upon them small sails are run up or down which are known as _jibs_, _forestaysails_, etc. (Chapter IV). Many boats which do not have bowsprits or jibs nevertheless have forestays running from the top of the mast to the bow, to keep the mast in one position, while many boats with bowsprits have stays running from the end of the bowsprit to the sides of the boat, their purpose being to keep the bowsprit from bending sideways.

On large vessels the stays are very numerous and there are _backstays_ to keep the masts from bending forward, stays between the masts and many other kinds of stays, but most of these are never necessary on small boats. If the boat has a _topmast_, however, there are always _topmast-stays_ and usually _backstays_, the former being spread apart, where the topmast and lowermast join, by means of a wooden or metal crosspiece known as a _spreader_. So also on boats with a long bowsprit, or where a second piece known as a _jib boom_, extends beyond the bowsprit, there are stays known as _bobstays_ which are spread down toward the water by means of a metal or iron piece known as the _dolphin striker_ or _martingale boom_.

In mentioning these various parts of the rigging I have used the terms “masts,” “bowsprit,” etc., and while I suppose that nearly every reader will know what a _mast_ and a _bowsprit_ is, yet it may be well to add a few words about them and their names. The _masts_, of course, are the sticks which carry the sails and rigging, and if there are more than one used, the forward mast is _always_ the _foremast_. The one back of this is the _mainmast_; the third from the bow is the _mizzen_, while in four-masted vessels there is the _spanker mast_ or _jigger mast_. Where the front mast is very high and there is another very small mast at the stern the latter is also known as the _jigger_ or _mizzen_ and the forward mast becomes the _mainmast_. Masts may be made in one or more sections according to the rig of the vessel. If the mast is all in one piece it is known as a _polemast_ and if another piece is placed above it this is known as the _topmast_, while in square-rigged vessels there are still other pieces known as _topgallant masts_, _royal masts_, etc.

The _bowsprit_ is the stick which projects forward from the bow of a vessel and it may be either a _pole bowsprit_ in one piece, or it may have a second piece attached to it and known as a _jib boom_, while on very large vessels there may be still a third part known as the _flying jib boom_. In addition to all these there are the various sticks or timbers which help spread the sails and which are known as _spars_, but as these vary in number and name according to the rig and sails used it is best to consider them in connection with the sails themselves.