CHAPTER I

THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE OTTER

The common otter of the British Islands, known in scientific classification as _Lutra vulgaris_, belongs to the Mustelidæ, or in other words the weasel family. Included in the latter are the martens and their allies, whose chief attributes are activity, length of body and tail, shortness of legs, widely separated toes, and small claws. The otter is the possessor of similar attributes, with additional developments to fit it for an aquatic existence. If therefore we describe the otter as an aquatic marten, living chiefly on a fish diet, we shall probably not be deviating very far from the truth. Swimming is an inherited instinct handed down through the ages, and though it has been lost by man, it has been developed and taken advantage of by many creatures, in order to enable them to lead an aquatic existence. The reason for this intensive development of their swimming powers by certain animals probably lies in the fact that aquatic life opened a wider and safer field for them, both in the matter of food supplies and protection from their natural enemies.

The otter family is widely distributed over the globe, so before entering upon a detailed description of our British otter, it may be of interest to glance at other species inhabiting foreign countries. The typical otters are marine as well as aquatic in their habits, many of them visiting the sea, where they live in the caves and other retreats along the coast. There is one of the family, however, i.e., the sea-otter, which is entirely marine. The skin of this otter has always been keenly sought for by fur-traders and trappers, and it is owing to constant harassing by such people that the sea-otter is now all but extinct. This otter differs in many ways from its aquatic relations. It possesses large flipper-like hind feet, a short tail, and small, delicate forefeet. The hind paws alone are used for swimming, the delicate and sensitive forefeet being employed in locating the otter's food, consisting of mussels, crabs, and other shell-fish, which it hunts for amongst the rocks at the bottom of the sea. This otter spends its entire existence in salt water, and has been found as far as twenty miles from land.

The female usually has but a single young one, born, so it is thought, on the large beds of seaweed commonly known as kelp. Lying on her back in the sea, the mother sleeps and suckles her baby in that position.

In Africa there is a species known as the spotted-necked otter, which has shorter ears, longer toes, and more hair about its nose than the common otter. Africa also produces a large otter which has more or less given up its aquatic habits. The claws on this otter's forepaws have disappeared, while those on the hind feet have practically done so. In India there is a small otter whose claws resemble those of the foregoing, and in both animals the sense of touch in the forepaws is extremely delicate, which no doubt enables the creatures to locate certain of their prey by feeling for it. In the large African otter the webs between the toes are greatly reduced, and the facial bristles or "whiskers" are much softer than those possessed by the common otter.

South America can boast of a very large otter, whose tail is wider and more flattened than is the case with the otters above mentioned. It will thus be seen that there are only slight differences between individuals composing the typical otters.

The common British otter (_Lutra vulgaris_) is known by a variety of names in this country. The Welsh call the animal dwrgi, while in Cornish it is written durgi. In the Highlands, where Gaelic is spoken, the name is dòbhran. The physical formation of the otter is admirably adapted to fit it for an aquatic existence. In order to offer the least possible resistance to the water when the animal is swimming below the surface, the otter's head and muzzle are flattened, and the ears are very small. Both ears and nostrils can be closed to exclude the water. The body is long, low, and sinuous in movement, set upon short legs which are loosely articulated. The feet are palmate, with five toes armed with short, non-retractile claws, and perfect interdigital webs. The tail is more than half the length of the head and body, broad at the base, and horizontally flattened. Beneath the root of the tail will be found a pair of small glands containing a fetid liquid secretion. Being an aquatic, sub-Arctic species, the otter is furnished with a body covering of two kinds. The thick, close under-fur, which attains special luxuriance of growth, is provided for two purposes, i.e., for keeping out the wet when the animal is in the water, and for preventing loss of heat during cold weather. Overlying this under-coat is a covering of longer hairs, which are stiffer and more shiny, greyish in colour at the base, and brown at the tips. This dark colouring shows in most pronounced fashion on the upper portions of the body, and on the outer surfaces of the legs and shoulders. The inner portions of the legs, belly, chest, throat, and cheeks are brownish-grey. The throat often shows a good deal of white or greyish-white in irregular patches. This, however, varies considerably in individual specimens, some showing a good deal of it, others practically none at all. Turning again to the head, we find the eyes small and dark coloured, while the so-called "whiskers" are long, stiff, and thick at the base. These long, stiff hairs grow on the upper-lip, and there is a tuft of them over each eye, and two tufts--one below the other--on each cheek. In the case of the domestic cat these "whiskers" are soft, and possess a very delicate sense of touch, thus enabling the animal to creep noiselessly through undergrowth in pursuit of prey. Should the cat's "whiskers" touch the grass or other growth on each side, puss is then instinctively aware that there is not sufficient room for her body to pass, and that she will therefore make a rustling sound if she persists in her advance, and so alarm her prey. These soft hairs on the cat's face are quite adequate for her purpose, because she hunts on land and hates wet. Soaked with water the soft hairs would droop and prove useless, and so it is for this reason that the otter's "whiskers" have gradually developed until now they are strong and stiff in order to withstand the exigencies of frequent underwater journeys. They are used, too, in a rather different way, for although while on land they may aid the otter to make a quiet approach on prey, their chief purpose is for locating food--in the shape of frogs, fish, etc.--either beneath stones, or on the bottom of the riverbed. The long hairs on the otter's upper-lip are susceptible of considerable movement, for their development has been followed by that of the muscles beneath, which give the puffy appearance to the otter's face. Provided with perfect interdigital webs on all four feet, the otter when swimming slowly, paddles in exactly the same manner as a dog. When the speed is increased, however, the tail is brought into action, being moved from side to side, while the body is thrown into sinuous curves.

The otter, like the seal, feeds upon fish, but whereas the seal swallows its prey whole and entire, the otter masticates its food. The teeth of the otter are therefore adapted to crushing bones, which, if not thoroughly broken up, would lodge in the animal's throat. The two back teeth in the otter's upper jaw are considerably enlarged, and are provided with cutting edges and a flat crushing surface. Provided with a short and powerful jaw, armed with a formidable array of teeth, the otter is capable of inflicting a very nasty bite, as many a hound and terrier, as well as otter-hunter, has had cause to remember. Luckily the otter is a clean-feeding animal, and the after results of a bite are usually not serious.

In the matter of size and weight, otters vary considerably, those found on or near the sea coast being usually heavier than otters frequenting inland waters. No doubt the quantity and quality of the food supply has a good deal to do with the variation. Roughly speaking, the average weight of a dog otter is from 20 lb. to 24 lb., and of a bitch, 16 lb. to 20 lb. As far as record weights are concerned, Daniel mentions an otter taken in the river Lea in October, 1794, which scaled "upwards of 40 lb." Turning to a more reliable source of information, however, we find in the _Field_ of July 5th, 1919, a list of the lengths and weights of eleven large otters killed in Norfolk. I take the liberty of quoting the particulars which are as follows:

Males, 48 inches, 37 lb.; 53½ inches, 30 lb.; 50½ inches, 28 lb.; 53 inches, 27 lb.; 50 inches, 27 lb.; 50 inches, 23 lb.; 48 inches, 23 lb.; 49 inches, 18½ lb.

Females, 46 inches, 16 lb.; 43 inches, 16 lb.; 44 inches, 14 lb.

It will be seen from the above how extremely weight varies in relation to measurement. Bitch otters occasionally weigh far heavier than any of those mentioned in the foregoing list.

In the _Field_ of September 22nd, 1917, an old record is given (March, 1813) of a large bitch otter trapped near Leven's Hall, Westmorland, measuring 54 inches, and weighing 27¾ lb. The record otter killed by hounds, a dog otter of 34 lb., was accounted for by the Essex O.H. on July 10th, 1907, during Mr Rose's mastership of that pack. This otter was found in the sea marshes near Ipswich. Generally speaking, very few otters of 30 lb. or over are accounted for by hounds.

It appears to be a matter of uncertainty as to how long a bitch otter goes with young. We have heard it said nine weeks, but have no reliable evidence to go by. As to the number of cubs in a litter, two appear to be more often laid down than three, although five have been more than once found in the same couch. Roughly speaking, the average number appears to be from two to three.

As to how many years an otter in a wild state will live, it is practically impossible to say. We have seen otters killed by hounds, whose general appearance and state of their teeth pointed to the fact that they had arrived at a ripe old age. Otter cubs of similar age have been found in every month of the year, thus exploding the old supposition that otters bred only in spring. Young bitch otters appear to pair as soon as they arrive at maturity, thus cubs are produced as above stated.

Otters of abnormal colour make their appearance from time to time. In the Badminnten volume on "Hunting," there is an account of a cream-coloured otter killed on the West Dart, while in "A Fauna of Argyll" by Harvie-Brown and Buckley, there is mention of a pure white otter which was killed in Jura.

Although a clean-feeding animal, the otter is a creature one hardly associates with human food. For all that the heart and other portions of an otter's anatomy have been served up at table on several occasions ere now, presumably we suppose for experimental purposes. Which reminds us of the yarn concerning the old trapper, who when asked if he had ever eaten turkey-buzzard, replied "Yes, siree, I _have_ eaten turkey-buzzard, but I don't _hanker_ after it." On one occasion we became possessed of a dead otter, whose carcass, after skinning, we presented to two dogs. The latter promptly turned up their noses at it, whereas several cats to which it was afterwards given set about devouring it quite keenly. In the case of hounds, unless the carcass of their quarry is still warm and they are excited by the free use of horn and voice, they will show no great desire to do more than tear the body of an otter.

The otter's hide--covering a sinuous body, with loosely articulated limbs--is tough, and offers more resistance to hounds' teeth than the skin of a fox, which soon disintegrates when worried by the pack. As far as hounds are concerned, the scent of an otter must at times be to them exceedingly strong, yet to the human nose--even if the latter is held close to the animal's body--there is only a faint and not unpleasant odour, very different to the rank scent of a fox.

As previously mentioned, there appears to be considerable uncertainty as to how long the bitch otter goes with young. In the "Master of Game," the oldest and most important work on the chase in the English language, written between the years 1406 and 1413 by Edward III.'s grandson Edward, second Duke of York, there is a short chapter on "The Otter and His Nature," in which it says that the otter bears her young as long as the ferret does. This chapter is of great interest, both as regards the knowledge of venery possessed by mediaeval hunters, and the quaint wording of the letterpress. For this reason we take the liberty of quoting it in full. It says, "An otter is a common beast enough and therefore I need not tell of his making. She liveth with (on?) fish and dwelleth by rivers and by ponds and stanks (pools). And sometimes she feedeth on grass of the meadows and hideth gladly under the roots of trees near the rivers, and goeth to her feeding as doth other beasts to grass, but only in the new grass time, and to fish as I have said. They swimmeth in waters and rivers and sometimes diveth under the water when they will, and therefore no fish can escape them unless it be too great a one. They doth great harm specially in ponds and stanks, for a couple of otters without more shall well destroy the fish of a great pond or great stank, and therefore men hunt them. They go in their love at the time that ferrets do, so they that hold (keep) ferrets in their houses may well know the time thereof. They bear their whelps as long as the ferrets and sometimes more and sometimes less. They whelp in holes under the trees near the rivers. Men hunt at them with hounds by great mastery, as I say hereafter.[1] And also men take them at other times in rivers with small cords as men do the fox with nets and with other gins. She hath an evil biting and venomous and with her strength defendeth herself mightily from the hounds. And when she is taken with nets unless men get to her at once she rendeth them with her teeth and delivereth herself out of them. Longer will I not make mention of her, nor of her nature, for the hunting at her is the best that men may see of her, save only that she has the foot of a goose, for she hath a little skin from one claw to another, and she hath no heel save that she hath a little lump under the foot, and men speak of the steps or the marches of the otter as men speak of the trace of the hart, and his fumes (excrements) tredeles or spraints. The otter dwelleth but little in one place, for where she goeth the fish be sore afraid. Sometimes she will swim upwards and downwards seeking the fish a mile or two unless it be in a stank.

[Footnote 1: The author of "Master of Game" does not say anything more about the otter.]

"Of the remnant of his nature I refer to Milbourne[2] the king's otter-hunter."

[Footnote 2: The Milbourne referred to by the Duke of York can scarcely be any other than the William Melbourne we find mentioned in Henry IV's reign as "Valet of our Otterhounds" (note in appendix to "Master of Game").]

If otters "bear their whelps as long as the ferrets," the period of gestation is six weeks or forty-five days. Bitch ferrets come in heat in April or May, and unless mated some of them apparently remain more or less in that condition during the summer months.

The excrement of the otter, known in hunting parlance as "spraints," "wedging," or "coke," is usually of a blackish colour, and contains the bones and scales of fish. Sometimes it shows the remains of fur or feather, which is proof positive that the otter does not live entirely upon a fish diet.

Where an otter has been feeding on frogs, the coke is usually a yellowish colour. In sand or soft earth an otter will scrape the latter into a small mound, like a cat, and for the same purpose.

Coke is generally found on stones in midstream, or at points where the otter enters or leaves the water. A small grassy promontory is a favourite place, and at such spots the grass often grows particularly green. If the grass is long, the coke will be found hidden amongst it. It is popularly supposed that the direction in which an otter is travelling--up or down stream--can be verified by the position in which the coke is left on the stones. In our experience there is little reliability about this theory. On a rock in midstream the position of the coke is quite as likely to be in the centre as at the sides, particularly if there is a tuft of grass or other growth on the stone.

An otter is quite likely to turn round, just as a cat or dog does, prior to depositing the coke, therefore the position of the latter can hardly be a reliable guide as to the direction taken by the animal when it eventually moves off.

Owing to being the possessor of a webbed foot, with five toes and short claws, the otter leaves a track--in hunting parlance "spur," "seal," or "mark,"--entirely different from that of any other animal to be met with in this country. Amongst the general literature relating to the otter, we have found small reference to the animal's footprints, while in some cases the information on the subject was incorrect. For instance in one article we read, it states "No other creature, saving a cat, leaves such a print on Nature's page as does an otter. Four round small toes and, if the soil be favourable, a plain triangle just behind where the webbing of the foot has rested."

Now an otter--like the badger, stoat, weasel, and hedgehog--has five toes on each foot, and the marks of the claws or nails are always visible in the footprints. A cat has four toes, armed with retractile claws, the marks of which are not shown on the ground, except when the animal is about to make a spring. Although a cat track may approximate in size to that of an otter cub, the latter always shows claw-marks, and partial if not entire imprints of five toes. On hard ground, claw-marks will show when the impression of the rest of the foot is practically invisible, so anyone with a knowledge of woodcraft can hardly mistake the track of a cat for that of an otter cub. In the same way with the footprints of hounds, terriers, or other dogs, their tracks all show the imprints of four toes, plus the marks of the claws. A terrier's track is far more like that of a fox than an otter, while hounds leave large footprints, easy to distinguish.

We have also seen it stated that the track of an otter is "recognisable by the mark of its five toes, and the absence of a heel." Under certain conditions this is true enough, but on favourable ground the mark of the heel is plainly visible. In like manner an impression of the webbing is sometimes left. In snow of fair depth, the individual tracks of an otter are more or less obliterated by the drag of the animal's body, which leaves a furrow as if a miniature snow-plough had been at work. Also in snow the drag of the otter's tail--in hunting parlance "rudder" or "pole"--is generally to be seen.

The otter has three gaits: walking, jumping, and galloping. The walk shows a line--usually rather twisting--of footprints one behind the other. When jumping the tracks appear in pairs, with an interval between each pair. At this gait the imprints of the hind feet cover the tracks made by the forefeet. At the gallop, which is really jumping at top speed, the hind feet are thrown ahead of the forefeet.