Part 31

The celebrated reformer was born at Isleben, in Saxony, 10th November, 1483. His parents wished him to devote himself to the labors of the bar, but an extraordinary accident diverted his purpose. As he walked one day in the fields with a fellow-student, he was struck down by lightning, and his companion killed by his side; and this had such effect upon his mind that, without consulting his friends, he retired from the world, into the order of the Augustines. In this seclusion he found by accident a Latin Bible, which he never before had seen, and in perusing it he was astonished at the little knowledge of Scripture and of Christianity which the clergy then imparted to the people. From the convent of Erfurt he was removed to Wittemberg University; and here he read lectures on philosophy, for three years, to numerous and applauding audiences. The completion of St. Peter’s Church at Rome at this time required extraordinary sums, and the pope, Leo X., to fill his coffers with greater facility, published general indulgences for the forgiveness of sins to such as would contribute to the pious work. The Dominicans were intrusted with the selling of these indulgences in Germany, and in paying their money the good friar Tetzel informed the superstitious people that they might release themselves not only from past, but also future sins. This pious imposition did not escape the discerning eye of Luther; he published, in 1517, a thesis, containing ninety-five propositions on indulgences, and challenged opposition. Tetzel was not silent on the occasion; but while he, with the voice of authority, called his opponent a damnable heretic, and whilst he burnt the thesis with all possible ignominy, Luther asserted boldly the inefficacy of indulgences, and regarded penitence and works of mercy and charity alone capable of forming a reconciliation with Heaven. Though attacked by numbers, Luther had the satisfaction to see his sentiments embraced with eagerness by the body of the people; and, when summoned by the pope to appear at Rome to answer for his conduct, he had the firmness to refuse, though he, at the same time, in the most submissive manner, exculpated himself, and deprecated the resentment of the supreme pontiff. Maximilian, the emperor, was anxious to support the cause of Rome; but Luther happily found a protector and friend in the elector of Saxony, and, upon an assurance of personal safety, he did not refuse to appear at Augsburg before the Papal legate, Cajetan. The conference ended by the refusal of Luther to submit implicitly to the pleasure of the Papal see. The pope, however, finding that violence could not destroy the obstinacy of Luther, had recourse to milder means, and his agent Miltitius was employed to visit the reformer, to argue with him, and to offer terms of reconciliation. Luther was struck with the civilities and the temper of the Papal missionary; but, instead of making submission, he was roused to greater opposition by the exhortations of the Bohemians, and the able support of Melancthon, Carolostadius, and other learned men. In 1519, he was engaged in a personal controversy at Leipsic with Eccius, divinity professor at Ingolstadt; but it tended only to sow greater enmity and deeper variance between the disputants. The same year, his book against indulgences was censured by the divines of Louvaine and Cologne; but Luther disregarded their opinions, and appealed for protection to the new emperor, Charles V. Though he had written, at the suggestion of Miltitius, a letter to the pope, not indeed of submission, but rather of exculpation, in language bold and energetic, he was in 1520 formally condemned by a bull from Rome, which, after enumerating forty-one of his heretical opinions, denounces against him the vengeance of the church, and excommunication, if within sixty days he did not make a due submission. This violent conduct Luther answered by “The Captivity of Babylon,” a book in which he inveighed bitterly against the abuses of Rome; and then, calling the students of Wittemberg together, he flung into the fire the offensive decree, which he called the _execrable bull of Antichrist_. In 1521, he was summoned to appear before the emperor at the diet of Worms, with a promise of protection; and, though his friends dissuaded him, and told him that, as his opponents had burned his writings, so they would treat him after the manner of Huss, he declared, with fearless voice, “If I knew there were as many devils at Worms as tiles on the houses, I would go.” At Worms he was required by Eccius to retract his opinions; but he declared that, except what he advanced could be proved contrary to Scripture, he neither could nor would recant. His obstinacy proved offensive to the emperor; but, as he had promised him his protection, he permitted him to depart. Charles, nevertheless, published his edict against him and his adherents, and placed him under the ban of the empire. Luther, however, remained secure under the protection of the elector, who had thus effected his deliverance, and in the castle of Wittemberg, which he denominated his _hermitage_ and his _Palmos_, he held a secret correspondence with his friends, or composed books in defence of his opinions. At the end of ten months, when the emperor was departed for Flanders, he again appeared publicly at Wittemberg, and had the satisfaction to find that, instead of being checked, his doctrines had gained ground, and were universally embraced through Germany. In 1522, he published, in conjunction with Melancthon, a Latin translation of the New Testament; and the work was read with avidity by the German nation. In 1524, he had to contend with Erasmus, a man who had apparently adopted his sentiments, though he had not the manliness to acknowledge them; and he now found in him an able antagonist enlisted in defence of the pope. In 1524, Luther threw aside the monastic habit; and the next year he married Catherine de Bore, a nun who had escaped from a convent; and though he was ridiculed by his enemies, and censured for taking a young wife, he defended his conduct by scriptural texts, and again set at nought the authority of Rome and the cavils of her advocates. In 1525, the emperor called a diet at Spires, in consequence of the war with the Turks, as well as the troubled state of Germany in consequence of religious disputes; and in the sitting of the next year he proposed that the edict of Worms should be duly enforced, the Catholic religion supported, and heretics punished. The new doctrines, though thus openly attacked by the head of the empire, were ably defended by the electors of Saxony and Brandenburg, the landgrave of Hesse, the prince of Anhalt, and others; and in another diet, held again at Spires, these dissentient princes protested against the measures of the empire, and were consequently called _Protestants_. In the midst of the confusion of Germany, a confession of faith was drawn up by Melancthon, the mildest and most moderate of Luther’s followers, and, as it was presented to the emperor at Augsburg, it has been called the _Augsburg Confession_. Thus the opposition raised against the mighty empire of spiritual Rome by an obscure monk, was supported by intelligent princes and powerful nations, and Luther, now regarded as the champion of the faith through Germany, had nothing to apprehend from his persecutors, but had only to labor earnestly to confirm what had been so happily established. His German translation of the Bible appeared in 1535, and was received with grateful raptures by the Germans. He died at Isleben, 18th February, 1546, aged 63. This illustrious man, engaged, as Atterbury has observed, against the united forces of the Papal world, stood the shock with bravery and success. He was a man of high endowments of mind, and great virtues. He had a vast understanding, which raised him to a pitch of learning unknown in the age in which he lived. His works, collected after his death, appeared at Wittemberg, in seven volumes, folio.

Ulriucus Zuinglius.

A zealous reformer, born at Wildehausen, in Switzerland, 1487. He studied the learned languages at Bâsle and Berne, and applied himself to philosophy at Vienna, and took his degree of doctor of divinity, at Bâsle, 1505. For ten years he acquired popularity as public preacher at Glaris, and in 1516 he was invited to Zurich to undertake the office of minister. The tenets of Luther, which were now propagated in Germany, encouraged the Swiss preacher to oppose the sale of indulgences, and to regard them as impositions from the court of Rome upon the superstitious credulity of the people. Undaunted in the publication of his opinions, he continued to increase the number of his adherents, and in 1523 he assembled the senate and the clergy of Zurich, and presented before them in sixty-seven propositions the minute articles of his faith. Though opposed by the bishop of Constance, his doctrines were adopted by the full senate, and he was exhorted to preach the word of God, whilst all pastors were forbidden to teach any thing but what could be proved by the gospel. Another synod still more powerfully favored the cause of Zuinglius and of truth; images and relics were removed from churches, processions were forbidden, and the greater part of the outward worship and ceremonies of the church of Rome was abolished. While, however, successful in the establishment of his doctrines in the canton of Zurich, Zuinglius met with violent opposition in the other members of the Swiss confederacy, and, after the fruitless conferences of Baden between Œcolampadius on the part of Zurich, and of Eckius on the part of the Catholics, both sides had recourse to arms. In one of the first encounters, the great champion of the reformation was slain, 11th October, 1531. As a leader, Zuinglius displayed great firmness, deep learning, and astonishing presence of mind. Though he opposed the doctrines of the Romish church, he greatly differed from the German reformer, and each, unhappily, paid little respect to the opinions of the other. His followers continued to increase; and in bearing his name they maintained doctrines on original sin, and on grace, which were rejected by the other seceders from the jurisdiction of Rome. According to Zuinglius, salvation was extended not only to infants, who died before baptism, but to heathens of a virtuous and moral life. Some alterations were afterwards introduced by Calvin, by Beza, and others; but whilst the proselytes to these new opinions acquired the name of _Calvinists_ in France, and in other parts of Europe, the Zuinglians, who firmly adhered to the tenets of their founder, assumed the appellation of _Sacramentarians_. The works of Zuinglius, as a controversialist, were respectable, chiefly written in German, and were comprehended in four volumes, folio.

Martin Bucer.

A Dominican, born in Alsace, in 1491, who early embraced the tenets of Luther. He afterwards inclined more to the opinions of Zuinglius, and, in his zeal for the reformation, attempted in vain to reconcile these two powerful leaders. For twenty years, his eloquence was exerted at Strasburg to establish the Protestant cause; but the turbulence of the times, and his opposition to the views of the Catholics at Augsburg, rendered him unpopular, so that he received with pleasure the invitations of Cranmer to settle in England. He was received with gratitude by the nation. Edward VI. treated him with great kindness, and he was appointed theological professor at Cambridge, in 1549, where he died two years after. Five years after, the persecutions of Mary were extended to his remains, which were ignominiously burned; but the insult was repaired by the good sense of Elizabeth. In learning, judgment, and moderation, Bucer was inferior to none of the great reformers, and, with Melancthon, he may be considered as the best calculated to restore and maintain unanimity among contending churches and opposite sects. His writings, in Latin and German, were very numerous, and all on theological subjects.

Philip Melancthon.

A celebrated reformer, born 16th February, 1497, at Bretten, in the Palatinate of the Rhine. His father’s name was Schwartserdt, which signifies _black earth_; but the word was changed, according to the affectation of the times, by his friend Reuchlin, into Melancthon, which, in Greek, expresses the same meaning. He studied at Bretten, Pfortsheim, and Heidelberg, and with such success that, at thirteen, he wrote a comedy of some merit. He left Heidelberg in 1512, because he was refused a degree on account of his youth, and then passed to Tubingen, where he resided for six years, and gave public lectures on Virgil, Terence, and other classics. In 1518, by the recommendation of his friend Reuchlin, he was appointed, by the elector of Saxony, Greek professor at Wittemberg; and here began that intimacy with Luther, which contributed so much to the progress of the reformation. He was, in 1527, appointed by his patron, the duke, to visit the churches of the electorate, and afterwards he was employed in the arduous labors of preparing those articles of faith which have received the name of the Augsburg Confession, because presented to the emperor at the diet of that city. In the disputes which he maintained in those days of controversial enmity, he displayed great candor and mildness, which his friend Luther attributed more to a spirit of timidity, than to the meekness of the Christian character. His moderation, as well as his learning, was so universally acknowledged, that he received a liberal invitation from Francis I. to come to France, to settle the disputes of the Protestants; but through the interference of the duke of Saxony, the offer was declined, as likewise a similar invitation from the king of England. He was engaged in the various conferences which took place on religious subjects at Frankfort, Reinspurg, Worms, Spires, and Ratisbon, and every where evinced the deepest learning, the most peaceable temper, and the strongest moderation. The character of the times, and not inclination, rendered him a controversialist, and his answer to his mother displayed the great and the good man. When asked by the aged woman, who repeated before him her prayers in a simple but pious manner, what she must believe in this great confusion of creeds; he replied, “Go on, mother, to believe and pray as you have done, and never trouble yourself about controversies.” He died at Wittemberg, 19th April, 1560, and was buried by the side of his friend Luther, in the church of the castle. Among the reasons which, on his death-bed, he assigned for considering dissolution as happiness, he said that it delivered him from theological persecutions. His works were very numerous, and, as they were written in the midst of controversy and ecclesiastical avocations, they were not always so correct in language, as they proved useful in advancing the reformation. A chronological catalogue of these was published in 1582, and they appeared altogether in four volumes, folio, at Wittemberg, 1601.

Peter Martyr.

A celebrated reformer and theologian, whose real name was Vermigli, was born, in 1500, at Florence. He was originally an Augustine monk, and became an eminent preacher, and prior of St. Fridian’s, at Lucca. Having, however, embraced the Protestant doctrines, he found it necessary to quit his native country. After having been for some time professor of divinity at Strasburg, he was invited to England, and appointed professor of theology at Oxford. He left England on the accession of Mary, and died in 1561, theological professor at Zurich. He wrote several works, of great erudition, among which are Commentaries upon parts of the Scriptures. His personal character is said to have been extremely amiable.

Henry Bullinger.

One of the early reformers, born in the canton of Zurich at Baumgarten, in 1504. The works of Melancthon converted him to Protestantism, and he became closely connected with Zuinglius, to whom he succeeded as pastor of Zurich. He was one of the authors of the Helvetic Confession, and assisted Calvin in drawing up the formulary of 1549. Bullinger was a moderate and conscientious man; and it is much to his honor that, on the ground of its being inconsistent with Christianity for any one to hire himself out to slaughter those who had never injured him, he successfully opposed a treaty for supplying France with a body of Swiss mercenaries. He died in 1575. His printed works form ten folio volumes.

John Knox.

The great champion of the Scottish reformation was born, in 1505, at Gifford, in East Lothian, and was educated at Haddington and St. Andrews. After he was created master of arts, he taught philosophy, most probably as a regent in one of the colleges of the university. His class became celebrated, and he was considered as equalling, if not excelling, his master in the subtilties of the dialectic art. About the same time, although he had no interest but what was procured by his own merit, he was advanced to clerical orders, and ordained a priest before he reached the age fixed by the canons of the church. At this time, the fathers of the Christian church, Jerome and Augustine, attracted his particular attention. By the writings of the former, he was led to the Scriptures as the only pure fountain of divine truth, and instructed in the utility of studying them in the original languages. In the works of the latter he found religious sentiments very opposite to those taught in the Romish church, who, while she retained his name as a saint in her calendar, had banished his doctrine as heretical from her pulpits. From this time he renounced the study of scholastic theology; and, although not yet completely emancipated from superstition, his mind was fitted for improving the means which Providence had given for leading him to a fuller and more comprehensive view of the system of evangelical religion. It was about the year 1535, when this favorable change commenced; but it does not appear that he professed himself a Protestant before the year 1542. He was converted from the Romish faith by Wishart, and became a zealous preacher of the new doctrines. Having been compelled to take shelter in the castle of St. Andrews, he fell into the hands of the French in July, 1547, and was carried with the garrison to France, where he remained a captive on board of the galleys till 1549. Subsequent to his liberation, he was for a short time chaplain to Edward VI., after which he visited Geneva and Frankfort, and, in 1555, returned to his native country. After having for twelve months labored actively and successfully to strengthen the Protestant cause in Scotland, he revisited Geneva, where he remained till 1559. During his residence in Geneva, he published his “First Blast of the Trumpet against the monstrous Government of Women”—a treatise which was levelled against Mary of England, but which gave serious offence to Elizabeth. From April, 1559, when he once more and finally set foot on Scottish earth, till his decease, which took place November 24, 1572, the reformed church was triumphant, and he was one of its most prominent, admired, and honored leaders.

When his body was laid in the grave, the regent of Scotland emphatically pronounced his eulogium, in the well-known words, “There lies he who never feared the face of man.”

Knox has been styled the intrepid reformer; and that character he unquestionably deserves. In personal intrepidity and popular eloquence he resembled Luther. His doctrinal sentiments were those of Calvin; and, like Zuinglius, he felt an attachment to the principles of religious liberty. He effected much in the great work of the reformation; but his manners were so severe, and his temper so acrid, that whilst he may be equally respected with Luther and Melancthon, he is not equally beloved. Knox was, however, known and beloved by the principal persons among the reformed in France, Switzerland, and Germany; and the affectionate veneration in which his memory was held in Scotland after his death, evinced that the influence he possessed among his countrymen, during his life, was not constrained, but founded on the high opinion which they entertained. Banatyne has thus drawn his character, and it is unquestionably entitled to consideration:—“In this manner,” says he, “departed this man of God; the light of Scotland, the comfort of the church within the same, the mirror of godliness, and pattern and example to all true ministers, in purity of life, soundness of doctrine, and boldness in reproving of wickedness; one that cared not for the favor of men, how great soever they were.”

John Calvin.

A celebrated reformer, born at Noyon, in Picardy, 10th July, 1509. His family name was _Cauvin_, which he Latinized into _Calvinus_. He was first intended for the church, and, subsequently, for the profession of civil law. Having embraced the principles of Protestantism, he was under the necessity of quitting France; and he settled at Bâsle, where he published his celebrated “Institutions of the Christian Religion.” After having visited Italy, he was returning by the way of Geneva, in 1536, when Farel and other reformers induced him to take up his abode in that city. He was chosen one of the ministers of the gospel, and professor of divinity. A dispute with the city authorities soon compelled him to leave Geneva, and he withdrew to Strasburg; whence he was recalled in 1541. From the time of his recall, he possessed almost absolute power at Geneva; and he exerted himself vigorously in establishing the Presbyterian form of church government. The reformer, who so loudly exclaimed against the tyranny of Rome, directed the whole torrent of his persecution against Servetus, a physician, who had in an ambiguous style written upon the Trinity; and his vengeance was not appeased till the unfortunate heretic had expired in the flames. He died May 26, 1564; and, though he had long enjoyed a high reputation and exercised an unbounded authority, he left only three hundred crowns to his heirs, including his library, the books of which sold afterwards at a great price. The works of Calvin were printed in twelve volumes, folio, Geneva, and in nine, Amsterdam, in 1667.

Jerome Zanchius.

A native of Alzano, who entered in the congregation of the Lateran canons. He embraced the tenets of the Protestants by the conversation of Peter Martyr, who was of the same establishment; and, afraid of persecution, he retired, 1553, to Strasburg, where he taught divinity and the philosophy of Aristotle. He quitted Strasburg, in 1563, for Chiavene, and, in 1568, removed to Heidelberg, where he was appointed professor of theology, and where he died 19th November, 1590, aged eighty-four. He was author of “Commentaries on St. Paul’s Epistles,” and other works, published together at Geneva, in eight volumes, folio, 1613. In his character he was a man of moderation, learned, benevolent, and pious.

Theodore Beza.