Part I (38th Memoir of the Egypt Exploration Society), London, 1923.

[158]Gardiner in _Zeitschrift für Aegyptische Sprache_, XLIII (1906), 43.

[159]Max Weber, _Gesammelte Aufsätze zur Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte_ (Tübingen, 1924), 24.

[160]Junker, _Giza_, V (Wien, 1941).

[161]_Op. cit._, 52 ff.

[162]Junker, _Giza_, IV (Wien, 1940).

[163]After Griffith, _Deir el Gebrawi_, II, 30.

[164]Gardiner, _Journal of Egyptian Archaeology_, XXVII (1941), 22.

[165]After Kees, _Kulturgeschichte_, 40.

[166]_Ibid._, 41.

[167]Gardiner, _Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archaeology_, XXXVII (1915), 117; XXXIX (1917), 133.

[168]F. M. Powicke, _The Reformation in England_ (Oxford, 1941), 31.

[169]This subject has been studied in the works named on p. 124, n. 5. Since the last of these was published during the war and is hardly known abroad, we have included in this Appendix more matter dealt with on a previous occasion than would otherwise have been justifiable.

[170]Phrased differently, one might say that we had, without justification, used the expansion of the Indo-European and Arabic-speaking peoples as an analogy for the changes observed in Egypt and Mesopotamia.

[171]Frankfort, _Cylinder Seals_ (London, 1939), 293.

[172]The reader unacquainted with these cylinders may identify the figures as follows. In Fig. 37 he will see some hieroglyphs which appear, reversed, at the extreme left in the impression of Fig. 38. To the right of them one sees the offering table with two crescents representing loaves of bread; over these a man extends his hand. He is seated on a bed with legs ending in bull’s or lion’s feet (such beds have been found in the graves at Abydos). His long hair is rendered in a crosshatched mass. In Fig. 39 is a similar figure, facing to the right. His hair is rendered with a straight line.

[173]In order not to overload this Appendix with footnotes, we shall refer only to the most important monuments. These are conveniently collected in J. Capart, _Primitive Art in Egypt_, London, 1905. Detailed discussions with references will be found there and in the following three works: H. Frankfort, _Studies in Early Pottery of the Near East_, I (London, 1924), 117-42; A. Scharif, “Neues zur Frage der ältesten Aegyptisch-Babylonischen Kulturbeziehungen” in _Zeitschrift für Aegyptische Sprache_, LXXI (1935), 89-106; H. Frankfort, “The Origin of Monumental Architecture in Egypt” in _American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures_, LVIII (1941), 329-58. In this last article, I have formulated disagreement with certain ideas propounded by Scharff, especially as regards cylinder seals, and have shown (_op. cit._, 354, n. 55) that the relief of shell in Berlin (also depicted by Capart, _op. cit._, 83, Figs. 50-1) is a purely Mesopotamian object, and therefore irrelevant to the present discussion.

[174]They occur on the Small Hierakonpolis palette: Capart, _op. cit._, Fig. 172.

[175]See also the University College knife-handle (Capart, _op. cit._, 72, Fig. 37) and the Berlin knife-handle (Capart, _op. cit._, 73, Fig. 38.)

[176]Gebel el Arak knife-handle (Fig. 23); Small Louvre palette (Capart, _op. cit._, 235, Fig. 174); Lion palette (Capart, _op. cit._, 239, Fig. 178 plus 241, Fig. 180); Zaki Youssef Saad, _Royal Excavations at Saqqara and Helwan_, 1944-5, _Supplément aux Annales du Service des Antiquités de l’Egypte_, 166, Fig. 14.

[177]The Egyptian manner of representing carnivores and their prey is shown in the central row of animals on the Hunters’ palette (Fig. 25) where they appear in headlong flight. See also the Small Hierakonpolis palette and Egyptian renderings of the historical periods. In Mesopotamia the prey is rendered as unaffected by the attack; our Fig. 14, for instance, can be matched by a seal (Frankfort, _Cylinder Seals_, Plate V _a_) where a lion is shown striking his claws into a bull’s hindquarters. The bull stands as in our figure. This is but one example from many. Another instance of this rendering in Egypt is found on a macehead from Hierakonpolis (Capart, _op. cit._, 97, Fig. 68) with alternating dogs and lions, each of which attacks the one before him with teeth and claws. This type of design, a circular interlocking by activation of the individual figures, is characteristic for Mesopotamia and occurs on numerous cylinder seals, on the silver vase of Entemena, and on the macehead of Mesilim of Kish in the Louvre.

[178]See Frankfort, _Cylinder Seals_, Epilogue _et passim_.

[179]See Frankfort, “The Origin of Monumental Architecture in Egypt,” in _American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures_, LVIII (1941), 329-58. In this article we have not only discussed the detailed technical similarities between recessed brick building in the two countries but also demonstrated the inadequacy of prevalent explanations of the Egyptian examples, “irrespective the fact that they failed to account for the contemporary construction of similar buildings in Mesopotamia.”

[180]This does not imply that they must have been mean structures. In Uganda, for instance, no fewer than a thousand men are continuously engaged in the royal enclosure on building and repairs (John Roscoe, _The Baganda_, 366).

[181]See also Borchardt, “Das Grab des Menes,” in _Zeitschrift für Aegyptische Sprache_, XXXVI (1898), 87-105.

[182]This is the _Riemchenverband_, observed by the excavators of Erech (E. Heinrich, _Schilf und Lehm_, 40) and of Tell Asmar (Delougaz and Lloyd, _Pre-Sargonid Temples in the Diyala Region_ [Chicago, 1942], 169, Fig. 127).

[183]In our figure and in the tomb of Neithotep (“Das Grab des Menes”—see n. 2, above), the structures, like the Babylonian temples, appear to stand on a brick platform; but in reality a low revetment was built up against the outside of the walls after these had been built up—complete with recesses—from the foundations. In Babylonia this apparent platform is called a _kisu_.

[184]Our Fig. 48 shows the impressions of these round timbers in the brick work of the White Temple at Erech, of which Fig. 45 shows the plan. Fig. 49 shows a wooden sarcophagus found in a First Dynasty tomb at Tarkhan in Egypt, which imitates a recessed building with a similar strengthening of round timbers. Fig. 50 shows an actual tomb found at Abu Roash in Lower Egypt with some timbers still in place.

[185]The Egyptian designs (Figs. 42, 44 left, 43) are supposed to render a palace façade, an assumption incapable of proof and ignoring the fact that the tombs have recesses on all four sides. But whatever the original of this design may have been, its abbreviated rendering in Egypt resembles an abbreviated rendering of temples in Mesopotamia (Fig. 44 right) very closely.

[186]At Abydos three of these, perhaps built under the Second Dynasty, survive. See Petrie, _Abydos_, III (London, 1904), Plates V-VIII.

[187]Scharff, _Archaeologische Beiträge zur Frage der Entstehung der Hieroglyphenschrift_ (München, 1942).

[188]See _Kingship and the Gods_, 20 and 350, n. 15.

[189]We have shown that in early Mesopotamian script words sounding alike (_e.g._ “to live” and “arrow”) could be written with the same sign and the meaning clarified by the addition of determinatives which were not pronounced but indicated what kind of notion was rendered. In Egypt from the first we find the same devices in use. The hieroglyph depicting a rib can also be used to render the verb “to approach,” in which case two legs are added as a determinative. Just as in Mesopotamia the picture of the arrow became a phonetic sign for _ti_, so the Egyptian signs become phonetic signs. There is, however, a difference. In Mesopotamia both consonants and vowels were rendered by the sign. In Egypt the vowels were ignored, and only the consonantal skeleton of the word was rendered. This was natural to the Egyptians, because the consonants of their words remained constant while the vowels changed in the conjugation and declension (as with us the verb “to break” has in the past tense “he broke”). To turn to our example, the picture of the rib stood for _spir_ when it meant rib, _soper_ when it meant “to approach,” and so on. (This is the vocalization in Coptic, the latest stage of Egyptian which used the Greek alphabet and, therefore, wrote vowels.) The phonetic value of the sign of the rib is therefore _spr_. In this way the Egyptians adapted the notion of how language might be rendered (which they evidently got from Mesopotamia) to the peculiarities of their own language. I do not want to suggest that Egyptian necessarily calls for a script in which only the consonants are written. Scharff (_loc. cit._), points out that Hebrew and Arabic developed in their punctuation a method of rendering the changing vocalization alongside the permanent consonantal skeleton of the words.

Some of the phonetic signs of Egyptian consist of only one consonant. In a discussion concerned with Egyptian writing there would be no reason why they should be mentioned in particular, since they do not differ in principle from the other signs. But in a wider historical context the signs with the value of a single consonant are of unique importance: they seem to be the distant ancestors of the alphabet.

[190]Petrie, _Royal Tombs_, I, Plate 19, No. 11.

[191]Scharff, _op. cit._, 55.

[192]Some features of Mesopotamian civilization remain almost unaltered during the Protoliterate period, hence it is very important that the Egyptian links can be proved to derive from the latter part, which is known to be a time of expansion in any case. The evidence for the synchronization of the rise of Dynasty I in Egypt with the later part of the Protoliterate period in Mesopotamia consists of three groups:

(_a_) The cylinder seals found in Egypt all belong to the “Jamdat Nasr” style and do not include any of the earlier style, known from seal impressions found in Archaic Layer IV at Erech. Likewise absent are examples of the brocade style which succeeds the Jamdat Nasr style in Early Dynastic I. Thus the upper and lower limits of the period during which contact took place are defined.

(_b_) The small bricks used in recessing at Naqada and Saqqara (Fig. 46) are predominant in the later part of the Protoliterate period in Mesopotamia. In the earlier part larger bricks are commonly used; in the subsequent Early Dynastic period the bricks are plano-convex.

(_c_) During the Protoliterate period Mesopotamian buildings were decorated all around with elaborate recesses (Figs. 45, 48); and this is the decoration found in the earliest monumental buildings in Egypt, the tombs at Naqada, Abydos, Saqqara, etc. In Early Dynastic Mesopotamia simplified recessing all around became the style; and the multiple recessing was reserved for towers flanking temple entrances (Fig. 19). These towers are introduced in Mesopotamia in the later half of the Protoliterate period as a seal impression shows (Fig. 42 right). The abbreviated renderings of recessed buildings in Egypt show both flat buildings and buildings with towers (Fig. 42, left; 43, 44), a combination which corresponds neither with the earlier part of the Protoliterate period nor with the Early Dynastic period in Mesopotamia but only with the later part of the Protoliterate period. Again, the upper and lower limits of the period of contact are defined.

[193]This object is depicted in Capart, _op. cit_., 100, Fig. 70, and Scharff, _Die Altertümer der Vor- und Frühzeit Aegyptens_, II, Plate 22, No. 108.

[194]There are no parallels in Egypt in historical times for the ships with vertical prow and stern, while the Mesopotamian _belem_—represented in silver, _e.g._ in the Royal Tombs at Ur—assumes that shape. See Woolley, _The Royal Cemetery_, Plate 169, and, for older literature, Frankfort, _Studies in Early Pottery of the Near East_, I, 138 ff.

[195]Petrie, _Koptos_ (London, 1896), Plates III, IV, V 4; Capart, _loc. cit._, 223, Fig. 166.

INDEX

A Abu Shahrein, 46. _See also_ Eridu Abydos, 95, 96, 102 administration, Egyptian, 99 ff. African character of early Egyptian civilization, 39; modern A. parallels, 33, 70, 120 agriculture: Egyptian, 100, 105 f., 113 f.; Al Ubaid period, 44; of Mesopotamian cities, 63 ff.; neolithic, 29 f., 32; social consequences of introduction, 34 f. Akkad, 82, 87, 88 Akkadian, 83 Alabdeh tribe, 34 allotments of temple land, 65 f. Al Ubaid culture, period, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 54, 83, 126 Amon-re, texts glorifying, 19 f. Amorites, 88 Amratian culture, 39 amulets, funerary, 123 animal forms, use of, in art, 124 f., 131, 134-35 Anu, 55, 88 Arabia, Southern, 136 Arabs of marshes of S. Iraq, 43, 45 f., 60 architecture, 45, 55, 56, 127, 128; monumental appearance of, 49, 126, 127; Protoliterate, influence of in Egypt, 97, 126 f. _See also_ bricks, houses, recessed buildings, reed structures, temples army service, 69; usually as labour corps, 108 f., 118 art: Egyptian, 92, 97; Mesopotamian influence in, 124 f.; Mesopotamian Protoliterate, 59 f.; palaeolithic, 27; representational, 50 assemblies in Sumerian cities, 77 f. Assur, 84

B Babylon, 48, 137 Badarian culture, 39 Baghdad, 53 barter, 73, 117 Bes, 109 blind, employment of, 69 boats on Nile, 112 Brak, temple at, 84, 87, 133, 136 bricks, 45, 126 Byblos, 36, 119

C calendar, 62, 86. _See also_ seasons canals, 53, 66 Cappadocia, 133 Carchemish, 36 Chagar Bazar, 36 Cilicia, 36 cities: Egyptian, insignificance of, 97; Mesopotamian, basis of rulers’ power, 98; economic organization of, 64 ff; particularism, 88; political institutions, 77 ff.; ruled by deity, 54, 61; rural connections of, 61 civilization, genesis of, 2 ff. climate, 26, 51 f., 68, 69 Collingwood, R. G., 15 f. common land, 65 copper, 40 f., 45, 75, 100 _corvée_, 65, 76 n. 27, 80, 108, 109 craftsmen, 67, 73, 110, 111 Crocodilopolis, 116 crops, 29, 68, 113-14 cylinder seals, 58-59, 60 and n., 83, 97, 122 Cyrus the Persian, 89

D dictatorship, 78 f. Djet, Stele of, 129, 132 drainage, 34, 113 dress, Sumerian, 75 f. dynamics of civilizations, 3, 12, 13

E Egypt: compared with Mesopotamia, 49; early conditions, 37 f.; foreign contacts of, 39 f.; formative period, 51; ideal of society in, 23-24; Mesopotamian influence in, 122 ff.; time of, 135-36; predynastic culture phases, 39; rural life in, 104, 105, 106 f.; sickles, 29; Spengler’s idea of, 9 f.; Toynbee’s, 18 f., 22-23; unification of, 90 f. Elam, 67, 74 Elamites, 88 Enki, 47 Enlil, 56, 63, 88 _ensi_, “governor,” functions, 79-80; equality of Mesopotamian citizens, 77 Erech, 54, 55 f., 60, p 78 n., 124 Eridu (Abu Shahrein), 47, 128 exchequer, Egyptian, 100, 101, 118

F Fayum, 30, 94 festivals, 62 First Dynasty (Egyptian), 30, 95, 113, 122-23, 126, 127, 128, 130, 136-37 First Intermediate period, 39, 111, 119 fish, fishing, 47, 68, 112 floods of Tigris, 53. _See also_ Nile flood “forms” of civilization, 3, 7, 25, 49, 94 Fourth Dynasty, 99 frankincense, 118, 137

G Gebel el Arak, knife-handle from, 92, 124, 134 Gerzean period, 40 f., 122, 136, 137 Gizeh, workmen’s barracks at, 108 gods: chthonic, 57; of waters, 47; man created to serve, 63; Pharaoh regarded as a, 54, 129; rulers of Mesopotamian cities, 54, 57 “gold” reward of merit, 111 Guti, 88

H Hadendoa tribe, 33 Hassuna, 30, 36 Herodotus, 8, 137 hieroglyphs, 131 history, idea of progress in, 15 f.; theories of, 4 ff.; distinction between prehistory and, 26 f. Hittites, 88 houses, Mesopotamian, 75 hunting, 38, 112 Hyksos, 18, 19

I Inanna, temple of, 55 inventions, neolithic, 35 f. Iraq, 30 irrigation, 31 ff., 34, 49

J Jamdat Nasr, Late Protoliterate, formerly called, 132 Jericho, 36

K Kassites, 88 Khafajah, 67 n., 75, 84 king-figure in art, p 78 n., 124 kingship, 78, 79, 86 and n., 93, 94 f., 98, 120 Kish, 75 knife-handles, 92. _See also_ Gebel el Arak Koptos, 137

L labour corps, housing of, 108 Lagash, 68, 79, 81 Lahun, workmen’s town at, 109 land of Mesopotamian cities, division and cultivation, 64 f. language: Akkadian, 52, 83; Egyptian, Hamitic elements in, 39, 40 f.; Sumerian, 51 f. law, 86; Pharaoh fount of, 99 Lebanon, timber from, 96, 118 Libya, 28, 97 _lugal_, “great man,” “king,” 78 f., 79 Lugalzaggesi, 83 luxuries, trade in, 37

M Maat, 104, 107 Marduk, 63 Mari, 84 markets, 117 Memphis, 94 “Memphis Theology,” 94 f. Menes, 90, 91, 94, 95 f., 113 merchants, 67, 74 f., 118 Mersin, 36, 126 Mesopotamia; prehistoric, 42 f.; southern, 44, 45 f.; cities of, Chapter III _passim_; compared with Egypt, 50 ff.; formative age of, 51; influence in Egypt, 121 ff.; invasions of, 89 Methen, career of, 101, 103 n. Min, statues of, 137 money, absence of, 72, 115 “mountain,” religious significance of, 56 f.

N Naqada, 122 Naramsin, 85, 87 Narmer, 90, 96; palette of, 91, 92 f., 96, 125 Natufians, 30, 31, 32, 35, 36 Nekhbet, 95 Nesutnefer, 102 f. New Stone Age, inventions, 35 New Year’s festival, 57, 62 _nigenna_-land, common, 65, 76 Nile flood, 38, 108, 113 Nineveh, 36 nomarchs, 101, 113 _nubanda_, 65, 66, 72, 79, 80 Nubia, 97, 102, 118, 126

O oath by name of king, 86 officials, 69, 99 ff.; ideal, 103; oppression by, 81, 104, 115 Old Stone Age, 28, 29, 30. _See also_ palaeolithic oligarchy, 77 ornaments, 74-75 Osiris, 18

P palaeolithic remains, express religious concepts, 27 f. Palestine, wild grains in, 29; early relations with Egypt, 39, 40, 96 palettes, votive: Hunter’s, 93, 126-27, 129; Narmer’s, 90 ff., 96, 125 Panehsi, 107 peasant life, 104 Persia, 42, 43, 68, 84 Pharaoh, position and functions, 24, 54, 91, 93, 98, 119-20, 129 “planned society” in Sumerian cities, 64, 73 ploughing, 71, 72 pottery: earliest, 35; in Egypt, 40; Mesopotamian, 43; Tell Halaf, 43 n., 46 prehistory, distinction between history and, 26; of ancient Near East, 27-48 private enterprise, property, 74, 76, 115 progress in history, 15 f. Protoliterate period, 52; age of expansion, 132; seals of, in Egypt, 122; temples of, 54; influence Egyptian technique, 97, 125 ff. pyramids, 108

Q Qau el Kebir, 110

R Ras Shamra, 36 rations, 66, 76 n., 112 raw materials, 100, 118-19 recessed buildings, 55, 127 f., 133 n. Red Sea, 136-37 reed structures, 45, 60 _rekhyt_-birds, 90, 93 religion, palaeolithic, 27 f.; early Mesopotamian, 62-63 f., 89 rents, in kind or silver, 65

S Samarra, 42 _sangu_, 65, 72, 79, 80 Sargon of Akkad, 82 f., 85 ff. Scorpion king, 90, 96; macehead of, 129 seals, cylinder, 58, 59, 60 and n., 122; stamp, 122 f. seasons, 113 Semerkhet, 96 Seneb, 111 f. serfdom in Egypt, 108, 109-10 Seti, 102 ships, 124. _See also_ boats Sialk, 30, 36, 133 sickles, toothed, 30 f.; clay, 46 f. Sinai, 40, 96, 97, 118 slaves, 66, 68, 110 Snefru, 23, 119 socialism, Sumerian theocratic, 73 soldiers, 69 specialization, 69 Spengler, O., views discussed, 4-12, 17-18 stock-breeding, 35, 116-17 Sumer, 48, 84, 97, 136, 137 Sumerians, 51 n., 57, 69, 88 Susa, 133 Syria, contacts with Egypt, 96, 97, 117, 136

T Tasian culture, 39 taxes, 100, 104, 112, 114-15 Tell Asmar (Eshunna), 88 Tell el Amarna, workmen’s village at, 109 Tell Halaf, 36; pottery, 44 n., 46 Tell Uqair, 55, 60 temples: of Al Ubaid period, 47-48, 54, 128; Protoliterate, 54; their influence in Egypt, 97, 127 ff.; accounts kept by, 71 ff.; civic importance, 57; earliest writing in, 57, 58; economic units, 50, 54, 64 ff.; magazines, 67 f. _See also_ Assur, Brak, Erech, Mari Tepe Gawra, 46, 128 Thebes, 98, 118 Theocracy, 54 This, 90, 95 Tigris, 43, 45, 53; and Euphrates, cultural continuum along, 84 toilet sets, copper and gold, 75 tools, 67 towers, 129, 132, 133 n. _See also_ ziggurat Toynbee, A., views discussed, 2, 4, 10, 12-23 trade, 74, 117, 133 trade routes, defence of, 87 f. Treasurer of Pharaoh, 100, 101, 102 Troy, 84 “Two Lands, The,” 95

U Umma, 79, 82 Uni, 107 Ur, 43, 55, 75; Third Dynasty of, 88 urban-rural contrast, found in early times, 62 Urukagina, reforms of, 81, 82 _Uru-lal_-land, 65, 74

V vizierate in Egypt, 99

W Wadi Hammamat, 137 weavers, weaving, 35-36, 111 Wenamon, 119 “White Wall,” Memphis, 94 women as allotment-holders, 66-67 wood, seals made of, 123. _See also_ Lebanon wool, 68 writing, 49, 50, 58 and n., 97, 129, 130

Z ziggurat, 55; significance, 56

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—Silently corrected a few palpable typos.

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