Part 12

Still our success was insufficient. No retribution had been exacted for the violation of the flag of truce, and for the murder of our countrymen, and no one seemed to feel certain whether a treaty was to be obtained or not. It was useless to demand the surrender of the persons who had instigated the barbarous treatment of the prisoners, for they were known to be very near the person of the Emperor, and there was therefore no chance of our getting the real offenders. An atonement in money, for the iniquities perpetrated, though repugnant to our feelings, appeared to be the only kind of demand with which the Chinese Government, humiliated and beaten as it was, could be expected to comply. The readiest means of obtaining a treaty was obviously to remain at Pekin until we got it; but the French Commander refused positively to detain his troops at the capital after the 1st November, and the English General was greatly indisposed to incur the risk of keeping his force there through the winter, in the absence of complete and timely arrangements for provisionment, which it was considered the advanced period of the season rendered impracticable.

Accordingly, on the 18th October, an ultimatum was addressed by the plenipotentiaries to Prince Koung, requiring him to reply by the morning of the 20th, whether, after paying, as a necessary preliminary to further negotiations, a sum of money in atonement for the murders committed, he would on an early day sign the convention already agreed upon? His Excellency was told that the Summer Palace, which had been partially plundered before the fate of the prisoners was known, would now be entirely destroyed, that its ruins might present a lasting mark of the abhorrence of the British Government at the violation of the law of nations which had been committed. He was also told, that in case of refusal to comply with the demands now made, the Imperial Palace of Pekin would be captured, plundered and burned.

In support of the ultimatum, the 1st Division of the British force, with cavalry, proceeded on the 18th and 19th to complete the plunder and destruction of the Summer Palace, whose smoke, driven by the northerly wind, hung over Pekin, whilst its ashes were wafted into the very streets of the capital. The French declined to take any part in this act of punishment--first, because they thought the palace had already been destroyed on their quitting it; and further, they feared that this demonstration would frighten the Chinese out of all hope of making any treaty at all.

The result showed that not one-fourth of the Imperial pavilions which constitute the Summer Palace had been even visited in the first instance, much less burned; and great booty was acquired by the troops employed as well as by the members of the embassy, navy, and staff, who were able to accompany the force. And so salutary was the effect produced on the advisers of the Imperial crown, that a letter acceding to all demands was received at daylight on the 20th, to the renewed disappointment of the 2nd Division, who again were under arms for the assault.

On the 22nd, the atonement-money, amounting to £100,000, was paid; and on the 24th, her Majesty’s Plenipotentiary, accompanied by the Commander-in-Chief, and escorted by a division of the army, entered in state and triumph the gates of the dim, mysterious city. The Ambassador was received by a deputation of Mandarins, who accompanied Lord Elgin to the hall, three miles distant, at the far side of the Tartar city, where the Prince Koung, surrounded by the principal officers of state, awaited his arrival.

At five o’clock that afternoon, ratifications of the treaty of 1858 were duly exchanged by the representatives of the sovereigns, and a convention signed, which, commencing with a recital of the Emperor’s regret at the occurrences at the Peiho Forts in 1858, declares Tientsin a free port, and thereby opens the Peiho to within seventy miles of Pekin for the traffic of the world. The provisions of the convention permit free emigration of Chinese, with their wives and families, to all parts of the world, and transfer a territory at Cowloon, opposite Hong Kong, where our troops were encamped in 1860, to the British Crown. An indemnity of three millions sterling to the British is guaranteed; and stipulation is made for the establishment of a British force at Tientsin, until the terms are fulfilled. A portion of the indemnity is to be paid 31st, December, 1860, whereon Chusan is to be evacuated by the English and French troops. But no provision is made for the evacuation of Canton, to which the French are at present understood to be disinclined to agree. The remainder of the indemnity is to be paid by periodical instalments of one-fifth of the gross revenue of the customs of China.

After signing the convention, Lord Elgin expressed a hope that the treaty would inaugurate friendly relations between the powers. Prince Koung replied that he himself had been about to utter the same words; and acknowledging that foreign affairs had hitherto been greatly mismanaged, observed, that as their administration was now exclusively placed in his hands, he had no doubt their future management would be more satisfactory.

The Franco-Chinese treaty was ratified by Baron Gros and the Prince Koung on the following day.”

CINTRA, CONVENTION OF.--This disgraceful convention was concluded between the British army, under Sir Hew Dalrymple and the French under Marshal Junot. The latter were allowed to evacuate Portugal and to be carried home to France in British ships, taking with them their ill-got gain; signed the day of the battle of Vimeira, August 22nd, 1808.

CITATE.--Fought 5th January, 1854, between Omar Pacha and the Turks, on the one side, and the Russians on the other.

“The army to which was allotted the first active operation was that commanded by General Fishback, with Generals Engelhardt and Bellegarde under his orders. This force was to occupy the extreme west of the Russian line of attack, and to drive the Turks from their position at Kalafat. By the time, however, that Fishback had reached Citate, a village within a few miles of his destination, he discovered that his force of about 15,000 men was inadequate to dislodge an equal number, strongly intrenched, and in unimpeded communication with Widdin, on the opposite side of the river, whence considerable supplies of men and ammunition could doubtless be obtained. He resolved, therefore, to postpone the assault until the 13th of January (the Russian New Year’s day), by which time he would be in possession of the requisite reinforcements, which he anticipated would raise his force to 45,000 men. Achmet and Ismail Pachas, who commanded the garrison at Kalafat, were well aware of the plans of the Russian commander, and determined to forestall his action. At daybreak, on the 6th of January, they sallied from the town with fifteen field-pieces, 10,000 regular infantry, 4000 cavalry, and 1000 of the irregular troops, known as Bashi-Bazouks. Three thousand men from the garrison at Widdin crossed the river to defend Kalafat from surprise; and at Moglovitz, between that town and Citate, a similar number were detached as a reserve. About nine o’clock the Turks reached Citate, and opened a side fire upon the village, while the infantry vigorously charged in front. After three hours of sanguinary street-fighting, the nature of the ground forbidding organized military combinations, the Russians retreated to the works they had thrown up beyond the village. The Turkish field-pieces were now brought to bear upon the intrenchments, and several vigorous assaults were made and as bravely repulsed. In the midst of the conflict, a large body of Russian reinforcements arrived, and the Turks, who occupied the gardens and orchards round the village, were exposed to an energetic assault in their rear. Nothing daunted, and favoured by their position, the Ottomans fought nobly, and succeeded in routing the newly-arrived reinforcement of the enemy, just as Ismail Pacha appeared upon the scene with the reserve from Moglovitz. Concentrating their forces, they now rushed at the intrenchments, and, beating down all opposition, drove the enemy from the position they had held. Nearly 2400 Russians dead in the streets and earth-works, a like number wounded, four guns, and the depôts of ammunition and arms which they captured, attested that day the prowess of the Turkish arms. Their own loss was about 200 killed and 700 wounded. For two days they held the place against the attempts of the Russians to recapture it; and then, emerging into the open field, drove the Russians before them back to Krajova. Then, retiring in triumph, they re-entered Kalafat, which, now mounting 250 heavy guns, and garrisoned (including Widdin) by 25,000 men, might safely promise a desperate resistance to any further Russian attempt.”

CIUDAD RODRIGO.--This strong fortress of Spain was invested by the French, June 11th, 1810, and surrendered July 10th, following.--Remained in the hands of the French till stormed gallantly by the British, under Wellington, January 19th, 1812.--Loss of the British and Portuguese 1000 killed and wounded, equal number of French, and 1700 prisoners.

CLONTARF, BATTLE OF.--Fought between the Irish and Danes on Good Friday, 1039. The Danes were signally defeated, 11,000 of them perished in battle, but the Irish had to deplore the loss of Bryan Boiroimhe, the King, and many of the nobility.

CLOSTERSEVEN, CONVENTION OF.--Between the Duke of Cumberland, third son of George II, and the Duke of Richelieu, commanding the French; 38,000 Hanovarians laid down their arms and were dispersed,--signed September 10th, 1757.

COALITIONS AGAINST FRANCE.

1st. Prussia issued her manifesto June 26th, 1792.

2nd. Great Britain, Germany, Russia, Naples, Portugal and Turkey signed them, June 22nd, 1799.

3rd. Great Britain, Russia, Austria and Naples, August 5th, 1805.

4th. Great Britain, Russia, Prussia and Saxony, October 6th, 1806.

5th. England and Austria, April 6th, 1809.

6th. Russia and Prussia, ratified at Kalisch, March 17th, 1813.

COLONEL.--This word is derived from the French, and means the chief commander of a regiment of troops.

COMMANDERS-IN-CHIEF OF THE BRITISH ARMY SINCE 1674:

Duke of Monmouth 1674 Duke of Marlborough 1690 Duke of Schomberg 1691 Duke of Ormond 1711 Earl of Stair 1744 Field Marshal Wade 1745 Lord Ligonier 1757 Marquess of Granby 1766 Lord Amherst 1778 General Seymour Conway 1782 Lord Amherst again 1793 Frederick, Duke of York 1795 Sir David Dundas March 25, 1809 Frederick, Duke of York May 29, 1811 Duke of Wellington Jan’y 22, 1827 Lord Hill, Gen’l Commander-in-Chief Feb’y 25, 1828 Duke of Wellington again Dec. 28, 1842 Viscount Hardinge Sept. 25, 1852 Duke of Cambridge July 15, 1856

CONFEDERATION OF THE RHINE.--The League of the Germanic States formed under the auspices of Napoleon Bonaparte. By this celebrated League the German States had to raise 258,000 troops to serve in case of war. It terminated with the downfall of Napoleon.

CONFLANS, TREATY OF.--A compact between Louis XI of France and the Dukes of Bourbon, Brittany and Burgundy. This treaty put an end to the “War of the Public Good,” in 1468.

CONSTANTINE THE GREAT.--It was whilst preparing to cross the Alps, to chastise the barbarians, that Constantine is said to have witnessed the supernatural appearance which induced him to embrace Christianity, and establish it henceforth as the religion of the empire. While meditating in his tent on the dangers that surrounded him, and praying for divine guidance and protection amidst them, there is said to have appeared over against him in the heavens a pillar of light in the form of a cross, bearing this inscription, “By this overcome.” Those who were attached to paganism looked upon this as a most inauspicious omen, but it made a different impression on the Emperor. He caused a royal standard to be made, like the appearance he had seen in the heavens. This was always carried before him in his war as an ensign of victory and celestial protection. Soon after this event he embraced the religion of Christ, and a little while after encountered Maxentius, his opponent, whom he utterly defeated in a terrible battle--Maxentius himself having been drowned while attempting to cross the river Tiber.

CONSTANTINOPLE.--Taken by the western crusaders in 1204. Retaken in 1261. Conquered by Mahomet II., who slew 6000 of the people, A.D. 1453. Ever since possessed by the Turks.

COPENHAGEN.--Capital of Denmark. It was bombarded by the English, under Nelson and Admiral Parker. Of twenty-three ships belonging to the Danes, eighteen were taken or destroyed, April 2nd, 1801. Again, after another bombardment of three days, the city and fleet surrendered to Admiral Gambier and Lord Cathcart, September 7th, 1807. Immense naval stores and eighteen sail of the line, fifteen frigates, six brigs, and twenty-five gunboats were captured.

CORNET.--An instrument of music of the nature of a trumpet. In modern usage, a cornet is a commissioned officer of cavalry next below a lieutenant who bears the ensign or colors of a troop.

CORONEA, BATTLE OF.--Fought between the Athenians and Allies and the Spartans. The King of the Spartans, engaging the Allies, completely defeated them, B.C. 394.

CORPORAL.--The lowest officer of a company next below a sergeant. The corporal of a ship of war is an officer under the master-at-arms, employed to teach the sailors the use of small arms. Napoleon was familiarly known among his troops by the name of the Little Corporal, and as he used to say there was just one step between the sublime and the ridiculous, so opposite extremes are taken in his titles. Emperor! Corporal!

CORUNNA, BATTLE OF.--Sir John Moore commanded the British army of about 15,000 men, and had just accomplished a safe retreat, when they were attacked by the French with a force of 20,000. They were completely repulsed, but the loss of the British was immense. Sir John Moore was struck by a cannon ball which carried off his left shoulder and part of his collar bone, leaving the arm dangling by the flesh. He died immediately. In the evening of the day of battle the remains of the splendid British army embarked at Corunna, January 16th, 1809. Previous to the battle, the army under their illustrious leader, had accomplished an arduous yet honorable retreat, for many leagues through an enemy’s country.

CRACOW.--It was taken by Charles XII, in 1702. Taken and retaken several times by the Russians, and Kosciusko expelled the Russians, March 24th, 1794, but it surrendered to the Prussians the same year. Occupied by 10,000 Russians, September, 1831; seized by Austria, and incorporated into that empire, November 16th, 1846.

CRESSY.--Fought between the English and French, August 26th, 1346. In the month of July in the year 1346, King Edward, at the head of an army of 30,000 men, landed at La Hogue, in Normandy. He was accompanied by his son, the Prince of Wales, though only fifteen years of age, and by his principal nobility. Having taken several towns, he moved along the left bank of the Seine, which river he wished to cross, in order to join an army of Flemings in Picardy. But he found the bridges all broken, and King Philip, at the head of a numerous army, followed his motions on the opposite bank of the river. At length Edward contrived to repair one of the broken bridges, and to pass over unknown to Philip; and he then marched rapidly till he reached the river Somme; but he there again found all the bridges secured, and learned that Philip was at Amiens with 100,000 men. Being informed that there was a ford near the town of Abbeville, which might be passed when the tide was low, Edward set out for it at midnight; but when the English reached it, the waters were not sufficiently low; and while they were waiting, a large body of French cavalry came down to oppose their passage. The English horsemen, however, gallantly plunged into the stream, drove off the enemy, and gained the opposite bank. The whole army was over when King Philip arrived, and the rising of the tide obliged him to go round by the bridge of Abbeville.

Though the French army was nearly four times as numerous as his own, King Edward resolved to give it battle. He drew up his troops in three divisions on an eminence behind the village of Creci or Cressy. The prince of Wales, aided by the Earls of Oxford and Warwick, led the first, the King himself commanded the last. At dawn (the day was the 26th of August), Edward having heard mass and received the sacrament, rode along the lines, cheering his men, and at ten o’clock they sat down and took their breakfast in their ranks. The French, meantime, advanced from Abbeville in confusion and disorder. A storm of thunder and rain came on and lasted through a great part of the day; but at five o’clock in the afternoon, the sky becoming clear, Philip ordered a body of Génoese cross-bowmen, in his service, to begin the battle. The Génoese gave a shout, and discharged their bolts; the English archers, who were posted in front, showered in return their arrows of a yard in length; and the Génoese, unable to re-charge their ponderous crossbows, fell into disorder. The count of Alençon then charged the first division of the English with a numerous body of cavalry. The second line advanced to its aid, and a knight was sent off to King Edward, who was viewing the battle from the top of a windmill, to pray him to send more help. “Is my son slain or wounded?” said the King. “No, sire.” “Then,” replied he, “tell Warwick, he shall have no aid. Let the boy win his spurs.” When this message was brought to the English, it redoubled their courage; and the French were at length totally routed, with immense loss. “Fair son,” cried Edward to the Prince, as he clasped him to his bosom after the battle, “Fair son, continue your career. You have acted nobly, and shown yourself worthy of me and the crown.”

The person of the highest rank who fell in this great battle was John, king of Bohemia. This prince, who was blind from age, ordered four of his knights to lead him into the thick of the battle. They interlaced his and their own bridles, and rushed forward, and all were slain. The crest of the King of Bohemia, three ostrich feathers, and his motto, _Ich dien_, i.e. _I serve_, were adopted by the Prince of Wales, and still are those of the heir-apparent of the crown of England.

CRIMEA, LANDING IN THE.--_Crimean War._--The following graphic description is from Emerson’s Sebastopol:--“At length the great fleet, nearly 400 vessels in all, on the 7th of September, 1854, a memorable day thenceforth, set sail for its destination. What that destination was none knew. Orders were issued to rendezvous off the Isle of Serpents, near the Sulina mouth of the Danube. The scene, when the immense flotilla was fairly under weigh, was of the most exciting and animating character. Every ship bore on its side the number of the regiment and nature of troops it conveyed, and carried a distinguishing flag. As night closed in, lanterns signalling the division to which it belonged were displayed, and an illumination, such as the waters of the Euxine never reflected, was witnessed by the sharers in the daring adventure. No incident of these modern practical times, perhaps, has partaken so largely of the character of romance as the departure of this renowned expedition. The great armada, which taxed the energies of the most powerful maritime nation of the sixteenth century, was a puny flotilla compared to the one we are now writing of. The largest vessel of that celebrated fleet was a cockleshell to many of our noble steamers, detached from their customary vocation of carrying on the commercial intercourse of nations, and devoted to the service of war. Resources of science, unknown before the present generation, and adapted by skill to our naval requirements, were there in abundance, rendering a single steamer more than a match for a dozen vessels of an earlier age, and almost independent of the adverse winds and strong currents which had dispersed many a gallant fleet and defeated many a deep-laid scheme of conquest. Iron, naturally one of the densest of bodies, became, in the hands of the scientific shipwright, buoyant as cork; and vessels, each large enough to carry a regiment of cavalry besides its proper crew, and to which a Spanish brig-of-war of the days of Philip might have served for a jolly-boat, breasted the broad waves of the Euxine, freighted with as brave and chivalrous warriors as menaced Troy, or did battle with the infidel possessors of Jerusalem.

Brave and chivalrous indeed, for they sailed they knew not whither, to encounter an unknown enemy. It might be that they were to force a landing at once under the very guns of Sebastopol, and by sheer audacity achieve the capture of the renowned fortress. It might be that, debarking at a distance from that spot, they would be exposed to toilsome marches, in an enemy’s country, harassed by clouds of Cossacks, and opposed by great armies, in strong positions, infinitely outnumbering their own force, when even continuous victory would necessarily be almost entire annihilation. But, like the errant-knights of old, they anticipated no difficulties, and bore a stout heart for any fate. English and French, officer and man, seemed to have but one desire, that of meeting all foes at all hazards, and winning gallantly or dying gloriously.