CHAPTER IV

_THE INFLUENCE OF THE GEOGRAPHIC ENVIRONMENT_

The extent to which the geographic environment decides the character and history of a people has been and still is a question on which competent writers differ widely.

On the one side we have such writers as Draper, Menschikoff, von Ihering, Ratzel, and generally the Russian and English schools, who seek in climate, soil, and waterways the explanation of the whole of history. Their views may be summed up in the maxim of von Ihering, “The soil is the Nation.”

In contrast to them stand the pure psychologists, notably the French school, who refuse to admit any great or lasting power of the material surroundings on the psychical traits. These, they claim, are to be looked for in race and in permanent anatomical differences, persisting in all climes and spots. They would say with the philosopher Hegel: “Tell me not of the inspiration of Ionian skies! Have they not for a thousand years spread their beauties in vain before degenerate eyes?”

The latter party, however, by no means insist that the environment is indifferent. They would entirely agree with Professor Wundt, that purely psychological laws are inadequate to explain the events of history, and that we must constantly take into account the associated physical conditions in order correctly to tell the story of human development. They would not deny that in some remote and invisible past the racial mind, like the racial anatomy, must have absorbed its permanent characteristics from local impressions; but this once accomplished, they would argue, both orders of characteristics became ineffaceable.

Even the most determined of the “anthropo-geographers” will not deny that the power over the mind which they attribute to geographical features diminishes in proportion as culture increases, to the extent that it is no longer coercive in civilised life. Nor can anyone who reflects be blind to the fact that the sameness brought about by subjection to given geographical conditions is something very different from the unity produced by mental association.

The decision of this debated question presents itself to me in a light which I have not seen stated by previous writers.

Both parties are right. We must agree with Hegel that the most lovely and advantageous spots on earth fail to develop their inhabitants; and yet, where such development takes place, we can always point to the geographic conditions which have alone rendered it possible.

In reality, the question is one only indirectly of geography. It belongs, directly, in quite another department of research, that of Economics, the science of the production and distribution of material wealth.

No matter how fertile the soil, how inviting the waterways, how smiling the skies, man will remain amid it all the savage of the prime unless he have within him the psychical stimulus to make use of these for the increase of his wealth; and that stimulus comes not from without.

Material wealth is as much a condition of mental growth as is bodily nutrition, but is just as far as is the latter from being either a synonym or a measure of such growth. It is a prerequisite, not a correlate.

The application of this principle explains the discrepant facts which have led to the conflict of opinions in anthropo-geography. Without geographic facilities, a nation cannot become wealthy; and without wealth it is even more at a disadvantage than the individual.

Poverty and riches are what most influence the fate of men and nations.

Armuth ist die grösste Plage, Reichthum ist das höchste Gut.

GOETHE.

Life itself is a question not merely of means, but of ample means. In central England the rich have an average longevity of forty-nine years, the poor but twenty-five years; in Berlin the rich live fifty years, and the poor thirty-two years (Farr, Kolb).

The higher culture, anything above the mere fight for life, can find a place only when it is possible, through accumulated wealth, to call a truce in that fight. The leisure so obtained may not be, generally is not, employed to that higher end; but without it the effort remains impossible.

Anthropo-geography, therefore, is primarily a branch of economics, not of ethnology. It affects the ethnic mind only indirectly, and not at all through the action of any laws of its own. It is a vital factor in the production of tribal or national wealth, but in no way influences the use which the tribe or nation may make of that wealth; while this is the only question with which the ethnologist or the historian of human culture is primarily concerned.

With this perfectly clear understanding on the real bearings of the much-talked-of “geographic environment,” I shall proceed to review its leading divisions.

Such a conclusion will not be favoured by those writers who teach that the surroundings exert in some manner an inspiring or a depressing effect on the mind, and that this reflects itself in the ethnic character. What! they will exclaim; are we to count for nothing the sweet meads, the sparkling waters, the glory of the landscape, and the hues of the flowers? The grandeur of the forest, the sublimity of beetling crags, the solemn expanse of the ocean,—are these of no avail in impressing the souls that see them with exalted aspirations and fervently stimulating the imagination?—

Alas! “The hand of little use has the daintier touch,” and lifelong familiarity with the most beautiful scenes of nature reduces to zero the stimulus which they are capable of yielding to others.

Wordsworth held the other view and could sing:

The thought of death sits easy on the man Who has been born and dies among the mountains.

But it is obvious, on reading the note in which he explains the source of his observation, that it was their social culture, not their local habitation, which imparted this seeming indifference to the peasantry. Precisely the same indifference to death among their congeners in France was noted long before by Montaigne.

There are three chief economic factors, derived from geographic surroundings, which decide the material welfare of a human group on any part of the earth’s surface. They are:

1.—The distribution of the surface land and water.

2.—The character of the soil with reference to productiveness, in the mineral, floral, and faunal realms.

3.—Its salubrity for man.

These favour or oppose the three essential desiderata for human progress, to wit:

1.—Intercommunication.

2.—Abundant nutrition and materials for the arts.

3.—Bodily health.

_The Distribution of Land and Water._—The Iroquois Indians call the peace-belt of wampum which is exchanged between friendly tribes a “river,” because it unites, as does some smooth watercourse, those living apart. This is a sweet native tribute to the influence of navigable streams in bringing man into relation to man. Bays, fiords, and harbours permitted man with frail early craft to keep along the seashore for thousands of miles. Thus the Tupis migrated from the river La Plata to beyond the mouth of the Amazon and far up that stream; while, antedating history, the Mediterranean peoples dared the stormy Iberian coast to visit the remote Cassiterides and the boreal isles of Thule.

The Delaware Indians expressed their relationship among themselves by saying, “We drink the same water,” meaning that they all dwelt on the Delaware River and its tributaries. Thus watersheds, through the facility of intercourse they offered, became natural national areas, and developed unity of thought and feeling.

Lake-districts exerted a like influence and became not only strongholds by their pile dwellings, but centres of tribal unity. When Cortes reached the valley of Mexico he found the shores of the lake occupied by three nations, independent but closely federated for offence and defence.

These are examples of the unifying powers of the watery elements; but in its might as a torrential stream or as “the unplumbed, salt, estranging sea,” it severs the families of men with a no less stringent potency. No more striking example can be offered than that of the American race, the so-called “Indians” of our continent. They extended over the whole area from the austral to the boreal oceans, a race-unit, identical in anatomical traits, but absolutely isolated from the rest of mankind, not a trace of European, Asiatic, or Polynesian influence in their languages or cultures.

The land areas offer obstacles more frequently than facilities to tribal intercommunication. Mountain chains, deserts, steppes, vast swamps, dense forests, and tangled jungles isolated by formidable barriers the early hordes, leaving them to battle singly with the difficulties of existence. The Roman writers say that interpreters for seventy different languages were needed in the Caucasus, and de Leon pretends that in the mountains of Ecuador there were as many tongues as there were villages. That Egyptian and Babylonian civilisation flourished contemporaneously for five thousand years without either colouring the other is explained by the trackless and arid desert which lay between them.

Differences in mere _area_, a matter of square miles, materially modify the ethnic mind. Great men are not born in small islands. The less the area of a state, the less the variety of its life, the fewer the stimuli to thought and emotion, the narrower the range of observation. The ethnographer Gerland attributes the mental degeneracy of the Polynesians, compared to their cognates, the Malays, directly to the much smaller islands which they were obliged to inhabit.

Mere _number_ acts in a similar manner on the _psyche_. A nation of many millions has greater self-confidence; each citizen feels its power strengthening his own courage, his faith is firmer in what so many believe, and he is the readier to labour for aims which so many admire.

The relation of the area to the number yields the _density_ of the population, which, with its collateral condition of _distribution_, is a ruling factor in ethnic life.

I have placed the geographic features which favour or impede intercommunication first on the list of those which modify the ethnic mind; and designedly so.

In the philosophic study of human development the social and anti-social factors demand our first attention. A man becomes man only as one of many. Nothing so lames progress as isolation; nothing so hastens it as good company; and I am fain to endorse the proverb that bad company is better than none. Rapid transportation is the key to the phenomenal growth of the nineteenth century: transportation of weight by steam, of thought by electricity. The Romans knew the value of good roads and made the best which have ever been constructed; the Phœnicians and Greeks won their pre-eminence, not by the resources of their home provinces, but by their skill as sailors.

_The Soil._—Next and second in deciding the history and character of a people comes the nature of the soil, the earth, on which they live.

Its value is to them in what it yields, either spontaneously or by labour. The primitive man contented himself with the former; but culture came along when toil entered. For culture ever demands an effort greater than that immediately necessary for existence, because its aim, from first to last, is directed to the future; and the higher the culture, the more distant is that future.

Even the earliest men levied tribute on all the realms of nature. The cave-dwellers of the Gironde caught fishes and trapped beasts; they gathered nuts and edible roots; and they sought diligently for the stones best adapted to lance-points and scrapers. All this we know from the remains left in their rock-shelters. They utilised the soil to the full extent of their knowledge and wants.

The wealth they thus amassed was scanty and transitory; but when their successors, the neolithic peoples, appeared with domesticated animals, an agriculture, a beginning of sedentary life and city building, and, ere long, devised the excavation of ores wherewith to fashion weapons of bronze, the land areas suitable for these occupations soon became the centres of ethnic life and property.

I need not pursue the story of the growth of these prime industries: the cultivation of the soil, the domestication of animals, the exploitation of mines, the transformation from a wandering to a sedentary life, from vagabondage to the hallowed associations of a home, and the effects which these changes wrought on the sentiments and intellects of tribes.

What I wish particularly to point out is that what man asks from the soil is primarily nutrition,—only nutrition, a living. It is the “food-quest” which has been so vividly portrayed in American primitive life by Mindeleff and so fully set forth by Mason: the tribe enslaved by the soil; its laws, religion, customs, hopes, and fears wrapped up and submerged in the desperate strife for food. Only where there is a surplus, where wealth rises above want, is it possible for the group to free itself from this bondage to the clod,—to become more than an “adscript of the glebe.”

The relations between man and the fauna and flora of the region he inhabits are constant and intimate. The progress of civilisation has been traced by Pickering and others in the distribution of plants cultivated by man for his food, use, or pleasure. They have been rightly named by Gerland “the levers of his elevation.” Especially the cereals supplied him a regular, appropriate, and sufficient nutrition. Their product was not perishable, like fruit, but could be stored against the season of cold and want. Their cultivation led to a sedentary life, to the clearing and tillage of the soil, to its irrigation, and to the study of the seasons and their changes.

The grain, once harvested, still required preparation to become an acceptable article of food. It must be soaked or crushed and in some way cooked. These processes stimulated inventive ingenuity, encouraged regular labour, and required specialisation of employment.

In the hunting and fishing stage of culture the fauna supplies the chief articles of food. To obtain it was man’s earliest school of thought. He had to surpass the deer in swiftness and the lion in strength, or devise means to circumvent them. We find the early cave-men had accomplished as much. They prepared pitfalls for the mammoth, traps for the sabre-toothed tiger, foils for the fleet reindeer, and did not hesitate to encounter even the formidable rhinoceros. Nets, hooks, and fishing-gear were thought out with which to lure and ensnare the denizens of the streams.

But a far more rapid advance in his culture condition came about when man bent his energies to the preservation, not to the destruction, of the lower animals. By the process of domestication he secured not only an abundant supply of food in their milk and flesh, but beasts of burden and draught, facilitating rapid intercourse and enabling him to conquer more rapidly the nature around him.

The mental growth of many peoples has been inseparably linked to a single animal. Thus the Tartars of the steppes have their horses, the Todas their cows, the Tuaregs their camels, without which their social organisations would be wholly lost.

The absence in America of any indigenous animal suited for burden or draught which could be domesticated was one of the fatal flaws in the ancient culture of the continent, drawing a line beyond which progress in many directions became impossible.

_Salubrity._—By salubrity I mean the general tendency of a locality to maintain the normal functions of the body.

This depends chiefly on what is included in the term “climate,” for soils become unhealthy only through the action of climatic conditions. These may be classed under three headings:

1. Temperature, which considers both the actual amount of heat and also the rapidity or extent of its variations (the “range”).

2. Moisture, including rain- and snow-fall and the average humidity.

3. Variety, not merely in the two conditions above mentioned, but of seasons, winds, clouds, electricity, etc.

The last-mentioned has been too frequently overlooked or underrated by medical and ethnographic geographers. In reality, it is the most potent of the three in its results on the human body and mind. It is easy to show that it is not the extreme of heat or cold which acts injuriously on the system, but the continuance of the temperature. A climate with a marked seasonal contrast between summer and winter is confessedly more invigorating than one, no matter how delightful, which is practically the same from year-end to year-end.

To keep in health, to maintain the functions in their highest relative activity, is the condition of the most effective work. Neither the individual nor the ethnic mind can reach its best results unless the body is in a healthful condition. Hence, those localities which are prone to endemic diseases or to frequent epidemics can never maintain a population intellectually equal to spots more favoured in this respect.

The most marked and widespread of the endemic poisons is _malaria_, the result of a paludal germ which has not yet been isolated. Heat and moisture are requisite to its development, and immunity from it is unknown in any race.

Malaria is the curse of plains and lowlands, while mountainous regions have almost the monopoly of goitre and cretinism. These endemic maladies directly diminish the mental powers through disturbing the circulation of the brain. They contribute largely to the inferior intellectual status of mountaineers, already prepared by the isolation of their lives.

The most important ethnic question in connection with climate is that of the possibility of a race adapting itself to climatic conditions widely different from those to which it has been accustomed. This is the question of Acclimatisation.

Its bearings on ethnic psychology can be made at once evident by posing a few practical inquiries: Can the English people flourish in India? Will the French colonise successfully the Sudan? Have the Europeans lost or gained in power by their migration to the United States? Can the white or any other race ultimately become the sole residents of the globe?

It will be seen that on the answers to such questions depends the destiny of races and the consequences to the species of the facilities of transportation offered by modern inventions. The subject has therefore received the careful study of medical geographers and statisticians.

I can give but a brief statement of their conclusions. They are to the effect, first, that when the migration takes place along approximately the same isothermal lines, the changes in the system are slight; but as the mean annual temperature rises, the body becomes increasingly unable to resist its deleterious action until a difference of 18° F. is reached, at which continued existence of the more northern race becomes impossible.

They suffer from a chemical change in the condition of the blood-cells, leading to anæmia in the individual and to extinction of the lineage in the third generation.

This is the general law of the relation to race and climate. Like most laws, it has its exceptions, depending on special conditions. A stock which has long been accustomed to change of climate adapts itself to any with greater facility. This explains the singular readiness of the Jews to settle and flourish in all zones. For a similar reason a people who at home are accustomed to a climate of wide and sudden changes, like that of the eastern United States, supports others with less loss of power than the average.

A locality may be extremely hot, but unusually free from other malefic influences, being dry, with regular and moderate winds, and well drained, such as certain areas between the Red Sea and the Nile, which are also quite salubrious.

Finally, certain individuals and certain families, owing to some fortunate power of resistance which we cannot explain, acclimate successfully where their companions perish. Most of the instances of alleged successful acclimatisation of Europeans in the tropics are due to such exceptions, the far greater number of the victims being left out of the count.

If these alleged successful cases, or that of the Jews or Arabs, be closely examined, it will almost surely be discovered that another physiological element has been active in bringing about acclimatisation, and that is the mingling of blood with the native race. In the American tropics the Spaniards have survived for four centuries; but how many of the _Ladinos_ can truthfully claim an unmixed descent? In Guatemala, for example, says a close observer, _not any_. The Jews of the Malabar coast have actually become black, and so has also in Africa many an Arab claiming direct descent from the Prophet himself.

But along with this process of adaptation by amalgamation comes unquestionably a lowering of the mental vitality of the higher race. That is the price it has to pay for the privilege of survival under the new conditions. But, in conformity to the principles already laid down as accepted by all anthropologists, such a lowering must correspond to a degeneration in the highest grades of structure, the brain-cells.

We are forced, therefore, to reach the decision that the human species attains its highest development only under moderate conditions of heat, such as prevail in the temperate zones (an annual mean of 8°–12° C.); and the more startling conclusion that the races now native to the polar and tropical areas are distinctly _pathological_, are types of degeneracy, having forfeited their highest physiological elements in order to purchase immunity from the unfavourable climatic conditions to which they are subject. We must agree with a French writer, that “man is not cosmopolitan,” and if he insists on becoming a “citizen of the world” he is taxed heavily in his best estate for his presumption.

The inferences in racial psychology which follow this opinion are too evident to require detailed mention. Natural selection has fitted the Eskimo and the Sudanese for their respective abodes, but it has been by the process of regressive evolution; progressive evolution in man has confined itself to less extreme climatic areas.

The facts of acclimatisation stand in close connection with another doctrine in anthropology which is interesting for my theme, that of “ethno-geographic provinces.” Alexander von Humboldt seems to have been the first to give expression to this system of human grouping, and it has been diligently cultivated by his disciple, Professor Bastian.

It rests upon the application to the human species of two general principles recognised as true in zoölogy and botany. The one is, that every organism is directly dependent on its environment (the _milieu_), action and reaction going on constantly between them; the other is, that no two faunal or floral regions are of equal rank in their capacity for the development of a given type of organism.

The features which distinguish one ethno-geographic province from another are chiefly, according to Bastian, meteorological, and they permit, he claims, a much closer division of human groups than the general continental areas which give us an African, a European, and an American subspecies.

It is possible that more extended researches may enable ethnographers to map out, in this sense, the distribution of our species; but the secular alterations in meteorologic conditions, combined with the migratory habits of most early communities, must greatly interfere with a rigid application of these principles in ethnography.

The historic theory of “centres of civilisation” is allied to that of ethno-geographic provinces. The stock examples of such are familiar. The Babylonian plain, the valley of the Nile, in America the plateaux of Mexico and of Tiahuanuco are constantly quoted as such. The geographic advantages these situations offered,—a fertile soil, protection from enemies, domesticable plants, and a moderate climate,—are offered as reasons why an advanced culture rapidly developed in them, and from them extended over adjacent regions.

Without denying the advantages of such surroundings, the most recent researches in both hemispheres tend to reduce materially their influence. The cultures in question did not begin at one point and radiate from it, but arose simultaneously over wide areas, in different linguistic stocks, with slight connections; and only later, and secondarily, was it successfully concentrated by some one tribe,—by the agency, it is now believed, of cognatic rather than geographic aids.

Assyriologists no longer believe that Sumerian culture originated in the delta of the Euphrates, and Egyptologists look for the sources of the civilisation of the Nile valley among the Libyans; while in the New World not one, but seven stocks partook of the Aztec learning, and half a dozen contributed to that of the Incas. The prehistoric culture of Europe was not one of Carthaginians or Phœnicians, but was self-developed.

INDEX

Acclimatisation, 194

Adaptability, 58

African, 27, 79, 89, 133, 134, 136, 138

Alcoholism, 99

American Indian, 70, 142, 153, 159, 162

Ammon, 87, 128

Annamite, 132

Arab, 99, 102, 196

Aristotle, 15

Arizona, 134

Aryan, 130, 161, 166

Asia Minor, 117

Assyria, 156

Asthenia, 117

Atavism, 151

Australian, 52, 105, 136, 137, 142, 159, 168, 174

Aztec, 71, 199

Bache, 132

Baker, 152

Baldwin, 75

Bastian, 15, 153, 158, 197, 198

Berendt, 145

Black Death, 102, 162

Blackstone, 169

Boas, 153

Boole, 14

Bowditch, 152

Brachycephaly, 129

Brain, 126

Brazilian, 24, 108

Broca, 153

Browning, Mrs., 66

Buckle, 87, 158

Buschan, 160

Bushmen, 88, 134, 135

Byron, 138, 144

Cakchiquel, 145

Capitan, 83

Castren, 113

Cattell, 132

Caucasus, 187

Centralisation, 39

Chauvinism, 115

China, 68, 79, 137, 176

Chippeway, 52

Climate, 192

Collignon, 87, 135, 150

Comparative psychology, 3 _ff._

Cope, 10

Cortes, 186

Cousin, xvi

Criminality, 106

Crusades, 93, 109

Cuba, 116

Darwin, 140, 148

Delusions, 108

Destructive impulse, 115

Divorce, 94

Dolichocephaly, 129

Dominant ideas, 110

Draper, 180

Dreams, 108

Dumont, 98

Economics, 182

Education, 53

Ellis, 94, 141

Emerson, ix

Erotomania, 114

Eskimo, 89, 118, 132, 145

Ethnic ideas, 21 —psychology, defined, vii _ff._

—— a natural science, xii

Exaltation, 113

Ezzelino da Romano, 115

Faculties, disuse of, 68

Farr, 183

Feminism, 140

Féré, 87

Ferrero, 114

Folk, 33

Folklore, 51

Forethought, 61

Fouillée, 131

Fuegian, 18, 34, 127, 132

Galton, 91, 92

Gambetta, 127

Gerland, 77, 187, 190

Gobineau, 153

Goethe, 55, 138, 178

Goitre, 101

Group, defined, 33, 42

Guaranis, 113

Haeckel, 132

Hale, 105

Haliburton, 134

Hegel, 180, 182

Height, 134

Heredity, 147

Hervé, 133, 140, 153

Home-sickness, 117

Hovelacque, 153

Humboldt, von, A., 89, 197

—— W., 28

Hurons, 112

Hybridity, 152

Hypersthenia, 112

Hysteria, 112

Iconoclasm, 116

Ideal, The, 9

Ideas, elementary, 20 —ethnic, 21

Ideation, 4

Ihering, von, 180

Iles, 80

Imagination, 8

Imbecility, 105

Incas, 199

India, 70, 109, 176

Individual and Group, contrasted, 23 _ff._

Indo-Chinese, 140

Indo-European, 166

Indonesian, 133

Industry, 54

Infanticide, 137

Instinct, 6 _ff._

Intellectual Deficiency, 104 —Process, 13

Intelligence 6

Inventiveness, 56

Ireland, 83

Iroquois, 185

Jacoby, 151

Japanese, 133

Jesuits, 112

Jevons, 13

Jews, 102, 161, 195, 196

Jingoism, 115

Johnson, 89

Kamchatkan, 108, 132

Kant, 143

Klemm, 55

Kohlbrügge, 152

Kolb, 183

Krafft-Ebing, 94

Krejči, 23

Lamarck, 148

Land and Water, distribution of, 185

Language, 18, 164

Lapouge, 99, 111, 128, 130

Lapps, 118, 134

Law, 167

Laycock, 119

Lazarus, vii

Lenguas, 162

Leon, de, 187

Letourneau, ix, 61, 159

Libyans, 199

Licentiousness, 94

Lichtenstein, 14

Liebig, 127

Livi, 131

Locke, 4

Lombroso, 131

Lykanthropy, 109

Malaria, 100, 193

Malay, 12, 112, 113, 187

Malthus, 139

Mania, epidemic, 109

Manouvrier, 143

Marriage, 170 _ff._ — abstention from, 92 — premature and delayed, 91

Mason, 190

Mayas, 71, 92, 131

Melancholia, 117

Menschikoff, 180

Mental Shock, 102

Mexicans, 99, 186

Mill, 124

Mind, human and brute, compared, 3 _ff._ —mechanical action of, 14 —unity of, 3 _ff._ —of the Group, 23 _ff._

—— not creative, 30

Mindeleff, 190

Modes of Progress, 72

Mohammedan, 111

Moisture, 192

Montaigne, 184

Morgan, 80

Mortillet, de, 77

Müller, 136

Muscular System, 134

Napoleon, 44

Natality, diminution of, 96

Nation, 33

Nervous System, 132

Neurasthenia, 118

Nippur, 76

Normans, 151

Northmen, 161

Nostalgia, 117

Nott, 153

Nutrition, 190 —imperfect, 87

Occupation, 173

Orgeas, 157, 160

Osseous System, 133

Pascal, 5, 83

Pathology, 159

Permanence, 39

Personality, 11

Peruvian, 52, 71, 99, 134

Perversion, conditions of, 107

Pickering, 190

Plato, 24, 53

Polynesian, 114, 159, 162, 174, 187

Post, 11

Progression, arithmetical, 78 —geometrical, 80 —saltatory, 80

Progress, rate of, 77

Psychic Cells, 16

Quakers, 69

Quatrefages, de, 153

Quechuas, 92, 131

Quen, de, 112

Quetelet, 14, 40, 107

Rabelais, 144

Race, 33

Ranke, 87

Ratzel, 160, 180

Receptiveness, 59

Reibmayr, 155, 156

Remembrance, 52

Reproduction, 135

Ribot, 143

Romanes, 5

Rousseau, 72

Salubrity, 192

Schaffhausen, 123

Schmidt, 76

Seeland, 145

Self-consciousness, 10

Semites, 102

Sexual subversions, 90

Siam, 69

Siberians, 99, 113

Skull measurements, 128 _ff._

Soil, 188

Soul, 16 _ff._

Spinoza, 179

Steinthal, vii, 178

Stock, 33

Symonds, 115

Syphilis, 101

Tartar, 89, 191

Tasmanian, 159

Temperament, 143

Temperature, 192

Tibet, 92

Tiedemann, 127

Todas, 192

Toxic agents, 98

Tribe, 33

Tuaregs, 192

Tupis, 185

Van Brero, 12

Van Buren, 136

Variation, physiological, 46 —progressive, 49 —regressive, 64 —modes and rates of, 72 —parallel and divergent, 73 —in circles and curves, 75 —in waves, 77 —pathological, 82

—— etiology of, 85

Vierkandt, 23, 56

Vikings, 67

Virchow, 83

Vital Powers, 142

Waitz, 158

Weight, 134

Wordsworth, 184

Wundt, viii, ix, xi, xiii, 26, 28, 143, 181

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“The book is cleverly written and is one of the best works of its kind ever put before the public. It will be interesting to all readers, and especially to those interested in the study of science.”—_New Haven Leader._

=3.—Rivers of North America.= A Reading Lesson for Students of Geography and Geology. By ISRAEL C. RUSSELL, Professor of Geology, University of Michigan, author of “Lakes of North America,” “Glaciers of North America,” “Volcanoes of North America,” etc. Fully illustrated. 8º, $2.00.

“There has not been in the last few years until the present book any authoritative, broad résumé on the subject, modified and deepened as it has been by modern research and reflection, which is couched in language suitable for the multitude.... The text is as entertaining as it is instructive.”—_Boston Transcript._

=4.—Earth Sculpture; or, The Origin of Land-Forms.= By JAMES GEIKIE, LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., etc., Murchison Professor of Geology and Mineralogy in the University of Edinburgh; author of “The Great Ice Age,” etc. Fully illustrated. 8º, $2.00.

“This volume is the best popular and yet scientific treatment we know of of the origin and development of land-forms, and we immediately adopted it as the best available text-book for a college course in physiography.... The book is full of life and vigor, and shows the sympathetic touch of a man deeply in love with nature.”—_Science._

=5.—Volcanoes.= By T. G. BONNEY, F.R.S., University College, London. Fully illustrated. 8º, $2.00.

“It is not only a fine piece of work from a scientific point of view, but it is uncommonly attractive to the general reader, and is likely to have a larger sale than most books of its class.”—_Springfield Republican._

=6.—Bacteria=: Especially as they are related to the economy of nature, to industrial processes, and to the public health. By GEORGE NEWMAN, M.D., F.R.S. (Edin.), D.P.H. (Camb.), etc., Demonstrator of Bacteriology in King’s College, London. With 24 micro-photographs of actual organisms and over 70 other illustrations. 8º, $2.00.

“Dr. Newman’s discussions of bacteria and disease, of immunity, of antitoxins, and of methods of disinfection, are illuminating, and are to be commended to all seeking information on these points. Any discussion of bacteria will seem technical to the uninitiated, but all such will find in this book popular treatment and scientific accuracy happily combined.”—_The Dial._

=7.—A Book of Whales.= By F. E. BEDDARD, M.A., F.R.S. Illustrated. 8°, $2.00.

“Mr. Beddard has done well to devote a whole volume to whales. They are worthy of the biographer who has now well grouped and described these creatures. The general reader will not find the volume too technical, nor has the author failed in his attempt to produce a book that shall be acceptable to the zoölogist and the naturalist.”—_N. Y. Times._

=8.—Comparative Physiology of the Brain and Comparative Psychology.= With special reference to the Invertebrates. By JACQUES LOEB, M.D., Professor of Physiology in the University of Chicago. Illustrated. 8°, $1.75.

“No student of this most interesting phase of the problems of life can afford to remain in ignorance of the wide range of facts and the suggestive series of interpretations which Professor Loeb has brought together in this volume.”—JOSEPH JASTROW, in the _Chicago Dial_.

=9.—The Stars.= By Professor SIMON NEWCOMB, U.S.N., Nautical Almanac Office, and Johns Hopkins University. 8°. Illustrated. Net, $2.00. (By mail, $2.20.)

=10.—The Basis of Social Relations.= A Study in Ethnic Psychology. By DANIEL G. BRINTON, A.M., M.D., LL.D., Sc.D., Late Professor of American Archæology and Linguistics in the University of Pennsylvania; Author of “History of Primitive Religions,” “Races and Peoples,” “The American Race,” etc. Edited by LIVINGSTON FARRAND, Columbia University. 8°. (By mail, $ .) Net, $ .

* * * * *

_The following volumes are in preparation:_

=Meteors and Comets.= By Professor C. A. YOUNG, Princeton University.

=The Measurement of the Earth.= By Professor C. T. MENDENHALL, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, formerly Superintendent of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey.

=Earthquakes.= By Major C. E. DUTTON, U.S.A.

=The History of Science.= By C. S. PEIRCE.

=Recent Theories of Evolution.= By J. MARK BALDWIN, Princeton University.

=The Reproduction of Living Beings.= By Professor MARCUS HARTOG, Queen’s College, Cork.

=Man and the Higher Apes.= By Dr. A. KEITH, F.R.C.S.

=Heredity.= By J. ARTHUR THOMPSON, School of Medicine, Edinburgh.

=Life Areas of North America: A Study in the Distribution of Animals and Plants.= By Dr. C. HART MERRIAM, Chief of the Biological Survey, U. S. Department of Agriculture.

=Age, Growth, Sex, and Death.= By Professor CHARLES S. MINOT, Harvard Medical School.

=History of Botany.= By Professor A. H. GREEN.

=Planetary Motion.= By G. W. HILL.

=Infection and Immunity.= By GEORGE M. STERNBERG, Surgeon-General, U.S.A.

The Mental Functions of the Brain

An Investigation into their Localisation and their Manifestation in Health and Disease.

By BERNARD HOLLANDER, M.D. (Freiburg i.B.), M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P. (London.)

Illustrated with the clinical records of eight hundred cases of localised brain derangements and with several plates. 8º.

(By mail, $3.75.) Net, $3.50.

“A book which should be read by every Surgeon and Physician in America.”—_Boston Times._

“This is a work of more than ordinary importance. The author’s researches and results oblige him not only to combat popular opinions, but to criticise rather sharply some high medical authorities. The brain is, indeed, the organ of the mind, but the various functions of the mind have their separate centres of activity in the brain. In the localisation of these centres good progress has been made and is still to be made. The great pioneer in this line of discovery was Dr. Franz Joseph Gall, a century ago. His results were long discredited but are here presented for the first time as largely confirmed by other lines of research. The phenomena of various kinds of mania are exhibited by Dr. Hollander in their connection with local brain-lesions, and special memories for words, numbers, music, etc., are traced to their local centres in the brain. These and cognate discussions lead on to a strenuous rehabilitation of phrenology, long discredited through quackery, and, as Dr. Hollander contends, through medical philistinism. The ability with which Dr. Hollander pleads the case is commensurate with his courage in stemming the current of adverse prejudice. While this work is of special interest to professional men, as lawyers and physicians, it is valuable to all who are interested in the phenomena of mind and the problems of education.”—_Outlook._

G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS NEW YORK LONDON

TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES

1. Silently corrected typographical errors and variations in spelling. 2. Archaic, non-standard, and uncertain spellings retained as printed. 3. Enclosed italics font in _underscores_.

End of Project Gutenberg's The Basis of Social Relations, by Daniel G. Brinton