Part 7

It is hardly to be expected that Black Bears (_Ursus americanus_ subsp.) commit any depredations on adult, able-bodied Caribou unless under very exceptional circumstances. Since they do not normally venture to an appreciable distance into the Barren Grounds, their contacts with Caribou are mainly in the forested zone. For an untold period in the past there has been a very interesting tripartite relationship between Bears, Caribou, and Caribou-eater Chipewyans about the south end of Nueltin Lake. For information concerning it I am indebted to Charles Schweder. The Indians of that area have been in the habit of killing large numbers of Caribou, especially on the spring and fall migrations, and leaving many of the bodies, or parts of the bodies, out in the "bush." The Bears have become accustomed to taking advantage of the situation, especially, perhaps, in the matter of fattening up for hibernation. This probably resulted in a certain concentration of the animals thereabouts. But of late years the local native population has seriously declined by reason of fatal illness and removal to other parts. Consequently, as Charles Schweder expressed it, there are no longer enough people there to feed the Bears! Three of the Chipewyans reported in late October, 1947, that they had lost a good many of their Caribou to the Bears during that season.

This recent change in the food situation about the south end of Nueltin Lake has apparently resulted in, or at least coincided with, an influx of Bears in the Windy River area, where they were unknown until 1944. During the next four years seven Bears were killed locally. The animals are said to have consumed about 70 Caribou bodies in the fall of 1944, and about 40 in the fall of 1947 within a few miles of the Windy River post; thus they became a somewhat serious factor in the human economy of the area. The Caribou is evidently the chief loser in this curious relationship, but even the Bear, which may be regarded as the chief beneficiary, suffers from man's retaliatory efforts.

_Relations to foxes_

The demand for Arctic Fox furs on the part of the fashionable women of the world sends the trapper on his winter rounds over the bleak and bitter Barren Grounds, where he depends upon his autumn kill of Caribou for sustenance for himself and his dogs as well as for fox bait. It is thus quite obvious where a large share of the responsibility for the dwindling numbers of the Caribou lies.

Both Arctic and Red Foxes (_Alopex lagopus innuitus_ and _Vulpes fulva_ subsp.) are among the scavengers that help to consume caribou bodies that are left unguarded in the wilds. According to Charles Schweder, foxes of both species seem to follow the Wolves, presumably in the hope of securing the leavings of their kills.

Charles also gave me an account of a remarkable sort of play between a Red Fox and a small buck Caribou. He had witnessed it in September, 1943, about 18 miles north of Windy River, from a distance of half a mile. The Fox would approach the Caribou closely; the latter would then walk up to the Fox, which would retreat, not allowing the Caribou to come close enough to touch it. Neither animal was afraid of the other. They kept up this performance for about 5 minutes. The Fox then went among some bushes, where the Caribou tried to follow it. The larger animal was still there, feeding, when Charles passed on out of sight. He regarded the whole performance as a matter of playfulness. His recital put me in mind at once of a slightly similar play between a Newfoundland Caribou and a Red Fox, as recorded by Millais (1907: 302-303). Stefánsson (1921: 623-624) describes a game of tag between an Arctic Fox and several yearlings of _Rangifer pearyi_ on Melville Island.

_References._--Blanchet, 1925: 34; Birket-Smith, 1929(1): 101; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 143; Munn, 1932: 278; Ingstad, 1933: 90, 157-159; Freuchen, 1935: 128; Banfield, 1951a: 36.

_Relations to Wolves_

Aside from man, the principal predatory enemy of the Barren Ground Caribou is undoubtedly the Wolf. A comparison of a distributional map of Caribou by Banfield (1949: 479, fig. 1) with a distributional map of Wolves by Goldman (1944: 414, fig. 14) indicates that the latter species is a considerably more plastic animal. No less than six subspecies of Wolves seem to occur in parts of the currently recognized range of a single subspecies of Caribou (_Rangifer arcticus arcticus_), as follows: _Canis lupus arctos_, Prince of Wales and Somerset islands; _Canis lupus manningi_, Baffin Island; _Canis lupus bernardi_, Victoria Island; _Canis lupus hudsonicus_, Keewatin, eastern Mackenzie, northern Manitoba, and northeastern Saskatchewan; _Canis lupus mackenzii_, northern Mackenzie; _Canis lupus occidentalis_, southern Mackenzie and northern Alberta and Saskatchewan.

The Keewatin Tundra Wolf (_C. l. hudsonicus_) is presumably the only one that concerns us here. However, its extension into the forested zone of northern Manitoba and northeastern Saskatchewan, as indicated on Goldman's map, is still problematical. Goldman's text (1944: 428-429) is quite indefinite on this point. There are such distinct differences between the general fauna of the Arctic Zone and that of the Hudsonian Zone that the Wolf of the latter zone may well prove to be differentiable from _hudsonicus_, whose type locality is at Schultz Lake in west central Keewatin. It is an interesting question whether any Wolves of the Barren Grounds follow the Caribou southward into the timbered country in the fall; likewise, whether any individual Wolves of the latter region accompany the Caribou on their spring migration out into the Barrens. Little light on the subject seems available at present. There is no doubt, however, that a good many Wolves remain during the winter on parts of the Barren Grounds that have been deserted by the Caribou at that season. Furthermore, at the time of the spring migration, mature Wolves of the forest zone would be restricted to their home territory by the necessity of caring for their young ones.

A Wolf is by no means able to capture a Caribou at will. During the season of open water the latter may effect a ready escape by plunging into the nearest river or lake and crossing to the other side. There is reason to believe that islands provide a good sanctuary during the summer (Seton, 1929, +3+: 108-109; Gavin, 1945: 228). In the winter the Caribou must depend primarily on its fleetness of foot. Even the fawns are reputed to be able to outdistance Wolves in a chase that is not too prolonged. An adult, if brought to bay after a long chase, is probably able to stand off a single Wolf indefinitely. Its powerful hoofs are its principal means of defense. Even if the antlers are brought into play, they are effective only during the limited period when they are fullgrown, hard, and free of velvet. When two or more Wolves manage to bring a Caribou to bay, the outcome is probably almost invariably in their favor. Charles Schweder has never known a Caribou to kill one of these predators in defending itself. In several cases reported by Fred Schweder, Jr., the last stand was made on the ice of lakes. The Caribou itself may choose such a place, as if aware that it may be more sure-footed on the ice than its enemy.

After listening to wolf tales by residents of the frontier settlements rather than by real men of the "bush," one might almost expect to see a couple of these bloodthirsty animals harrying the rear of every band of Caribou and keeping up a relentless pursuit. However, during a sojourn of six months on one of the best Caribou ranges in Keewatin, where trapping has very little effect on Wolves, I saw just one of these animals alive, heard the howling on several occasions, and noted a single Caribou that had probably been killed by them. It is far from a common experience for the resident trappers to witness actual pursuit by Wolves or even to find their kills. The following instances, related by Fred Schweder, Jr., comprised his only direct observations on Wolves in pursuit of Caribou up to and including 1947, when he was eighteen years old.

During the northward migration in May, 1945, a silent black Wolf pursued a band of 100 Caribou over the ice of Windy Bay. At one time it came within 100 feet, but thereafter they forged ahead. After half a mile the band split up, and the Wolf desisted. In October, 1946, Fred noticed a Caribou fighting off two Wolves on the ice of Nueltin Lake near its outlet. It used both horns and hoofs against its attackers. While one Wolf was in front, the other would try to get in the rear of the Caribou and hamstring it. This went on for two hours until darkness hid the scene. The next morning the Caribou was dead and half eaten. On October 16, 1947, a white Wolf was seen in pursuit of four fast-moving Caribou near Simons' Lake. It was about half a mile in their rear, and presently halted, probably by reason of catching sight of Fred.

November 7, 1947, was a blizzardy day; the air was full of drifting snow. Under these conditions a gray Wolf chased a buck and a doe right into the dooryard of one of Fred's trapping camps 10 miles north of Windy River. It was only about 30 feet behind them. When the buck broke through the ice of a little creek, the Wolf went right past it in pursuit of the doe. The latter nearly ran into Fred's toboggan, and he shot it at a distance of 20 feet. The Wolf came within 40 feet, but by the time it was recognized as not just another Caribou, it was 100 feet away. Fred then shot but merely wounded it, the sight being off his rifle. Meanwhile the buck escaped, but 3 miles away Fred met with it again and secured it. He recognized it as the same animal because at both encounters it was limping from a previous wound and was hornless as well.

In late November Fred found two fullgrown bucks and a doe on the ice of Windy Lake, where they had been killed by Wolves. The bucks were antlered and had probably met their end several weeks previously. Yet their flesh was so musky and unpalatable, in consequence of the rutting season, that it had not been devoured. A long trail of blood and hair led to the spot where the doe had fallen, apparently a couple of weeks previously; it was still only half eaten.

In Fred's opinion, Caribou are apprehensive of sandy eskers as the haunt of Wolves, and do not linger there.

On October 15 Charles Schweder pointed out the body of a Caribou in a little pond in the delta area at the head of Simons' Lake. He considered it killed by Wolves some weeks previously; its antlers were in the velvet, and it had been eaten only about the head and hind quarters as it lay in the water.

Joe Chambers, a trapper of Goose Creek (south of Churchill), stated that Wolves select the fattest Caribou, and that during the winter of 1946-47 they had been devouring only such choice parts as the tongue and the unborn young.

Caribou bodies are the primary bait for Wolves and Foxes on the Barren Grounds. Two traps are commonly placed at each carcass.

Up to a couple of centuries ago, when the baneful effect of civilized man began to be felt, the Caribou throve and multiplied to a point where they probably strained the grazing capacity of the Barren Grounds. Neither primitive man nor the Wolf had any serious effect on the size or condition of the herds. The Caribou were numbered by millions, and they doubtless owed their vigor and their success as a species in no small measure to their friendly enemy, the Wolf. Through long ages the latter had tended to eliminate the weaklings, the sickly, and the less alert individuals, leaving the fitter animals to propagate their kind. Here was a fine example of natural selection operating to the advantage of the Caribou. Thus the Wolf may be safely considered a benefactor of the species as a whole--a regulator and protector of its vitality.

There are only two regions of the world where Caribou (or Reindeer) have not long shared their territory with the Wolf--Spitsbergen and the Queen Charlotte Islands. And what sort of situation do we find there? Instead of thriving in the absence of such a natural predator, the animals of both regions are the runts of the whole Caribou-Reindeer tribe, and those of the Queen Charlottes have become virtually or wholly extinct (_cf._ Banfield, 1949: 481-482). Furthermore, the Newfoundland Caribou suffered a very serious decline after the Newfoundland Wolf became extinct at about the beginning of the present century. The lesson is obvious: it is folly for man to imagine that he can benefit the Caribou by eliminating the Wolves.

It is virtually axiomatic that no predatory species (other than modern man) exterminates its own food supply. Long ago nature must have established a fairly definite ratio between the populations of the Wolf and the Caribou. Although a certain fluctuation of that ratio could be expected from time to time, each fluctuation would be followed by a return to more or less normal conditions. The trend of evolution has doubtless been toward perfecting the Wolf in its ability to capture the Caribou, but at the same time toward perfecting the Caribou in its ability to escape the Wolf. Unequal progress of this sort on the part of the two species would presumably have been rather disastrous to the one or the other. But it is nature's way to have preserved a proper balance between the abilities of the two species, and thus between their populations. This balance (a rather delicate one) has probably been upset to some extent by the advent of civilized man with his devices to the Barren Grounds.

The Caribou "exemplify the survival of the fittest; none but the perfect are allowed to live and breed, hence their perfection. We believe that the wolf is in no small degree responsible for this high standard, and that were he killed off the species as a whole would suffer." (Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 161.)

"It is doubtful if the efforts of white or native hunters are of any importance whatever in the control of wolves in the caribou country, or could, under present circumstances ever be of any importance." (Clarke, 1940: 109).

_References._--Franklin, 1823: 242, 327, 344, 486, 487; John Ross, 1835a: 402, 530, 534, 564; Back, 1836: 128-129; Simpson, 1843: 232; Armstrong, 1857: 395, 480-481, 488, 525; Osborn, 1865: 227-228, 231, 232; Kumlien, 1879: 53, 54; Gilder, 1881: 61; Bompas, 1888: 60; Collinson, 1889: 244; Pike, 1917 (1892): 56-58; Whitney, 1896: 239; Jones, 1899: 374-375; Preble, 1902: 41, and 1908: 214; Hanbury, 1904: 89; MacFarlane, 1905: 692-693; Amundsen, 1908, +1+: 102; Seton, 1911: 225-226; R. M. Anderson, 1913b: 516; Stefánsson, 1913a: 93, and 1921: 248-249, 475-476; Blanchet, 1925: 34; Mallet, 1926: 79; Birket-Smith, 1929 (1): 51; Seton, 1929, +1+: 344-346, and +3+: 108-109; Blanchet, 1930: 54-55; Critchell-Bullock, 1930: 159-162; Hoare, 1930: 22; Kitto, 1930: 89; Jacobi, 1931: 240-241; Harper, 1932: 31; Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 33, 35, 36, 81, 82, 84, 85; Ingstad, 1933: 157-159, 165-166, 207, 302-304, 306-307; Hornby, 1934: 106, 108; Freuchen, 1935: 93, 120-122; Murie, 1939: 245; Clarke, 1940: 107-109; Manning, 1942: 29, and 1943a: 55; Downes, 1943: 262; Young, 1944: 236-238, 243; Yule, 1948: 288; Harper, 1949: 230-231, 239; Banfield, 1951a: 37-41; Anonymous, 1952: 263-265.

_Relations to birds of prey_

These relations are not so much of the living Caribou as of their bodies after death. The principal avian scavengers in the Windy River area seem to be the Rough-legged Hawk (_Buteo lagopus sancti-johannis_), the Herring Gull (_Larus argentatus smithsonianus_), the Canada Jay (_Perisoreus canadensis canadensis_), and the Raven (_Corvus corax principalis_). These birds are evidently attracted to the vicinity of camps and trap-lines by reason of the numbers of caribou bodies lying about. On their first arrival in late May or early June, before the lakes have opened up and while food in general is scarce, Herring Gulls seem particularly prone to assemble where Caribou have been recently killed. For example, up to June 3 only a handful of these birds had been seen about Windy River. On that day several Caribou were killed, and on June 4 about 100 Herring Gulls had gathered at the scene. Their scavenger activities make it especially necessary to protect the caribou bodies in the way described in the section on _Relations to man_. In a few days one of the bodies (apparently not so protected) had been almost entirely consumed. The Herring Gulls operate locally only from May to September, being absent during the rest of the year. A few Ring-billed Gulls (_Larus delawarensis_) appeared meanwhile and attacked a caribou carcass.

The Rough-legged Hawk is far less numerous than the Herring Gull and so is a much less serious scavenger. Now and then, however, it may be noted feeding on a caribou carcass. Even the Long-tailed Jaeger (_Stercorarius longicaudus_) is reported in such a role. The Canada Jay and the Raven are permanent residents and are undoubtedly helped through the inhospitable winter by man-killed Caribou. On the other hand, a good many Ravens fall victims to the fox traps placed about the bodies. Charles Schweder has frequently seen Ravens following Wolves, as if in expectation of a kill. Buchanan remarks (1920: 248) concerning the Reindeer Lake region, that the Ravens "appear to remain in the vicinity of the Caribou herds all th[r]ough winter." In the Windy River area the Canada Jay became noticeably more numerous in August, after the Caribou had returned from the north. The Ravens and the Rough-legs exhibited a similar increase in September and October.

The depredations of these carnivorous birds result to the detriment of the living Caribou in that they virtually force the hunters and trappers to kill a larger number of the animals than would otherwise be necessary.

_References._--Hanbury, 1904: 135; Stefánsson, 1913a: 93; Seton, 1929, +3+: 108; Ingstad, 1933: 157-159; Downes, 1943: 228; Banfield, 1951a: 36, 42; Harper, 1953: 28, 60, 62-64, 72, 74, 76.

_Relations to miscellaneous animals_

The Schweder boys spoke of Arctic Hares (_Lepus arcticus andersoni_) being in the habit of eating the stomach contents of Caribou after the animals have been dressed in the field. This represents merely harmless utilization of a normally waste product, although it serves some of the natives as _nerrooks_ or "Eskimo salad" (_cf._ Richardson, 1829: 245). Wolverines, Mink, Weasels, and Lemmings help to consume unprotected caribou bodies. (In the Old World the Wolverine is regarded as a serious enemy of live Reindeer [Jacobi, 1931: 243; Harper, 1945: 473].)

_References._--Pike, 1917 (1892): 56-58; Seton, 1911: 252, 1929, +2+: 413, 424, 443, and 1929, +3+: 108; Harper, 1932: 23; Ingstad, 1933: 157-159; Freuchen, 1935: 93, 99; Hoffman, 1949: 12; Banfield, 1951a: 36, 41; Harper, 1953: 40, 41.

_Relations to flies_

Flies of various kinds perhaps cause more wide-spread, year-round misery to the Caribou than all other pests and enemies combined. It is safe to say that not a single individual in the whole population escapes their attacks, and some even succumb to mosquitoes (Gavin, 1945: 228). The various biting and parasitic flies have already been discussed to some extent in the section on _Influence of insects on distribution_. Harassment by these pests is believed to be the leading cause of the haste with which the Caribou are frequently seen passing over the Barrens in summer. Downes (1943: 204) has commented on the habit of Chipewyan hunters in the Nueltin Lake region of examining the legs of Caribou for swellings caused by mosquito bites. In a buck secured on August 17 the legs exhibited numerous little bumps of this sort; furthermore, black flies covered the buck's body, while scarcely troubling those of us who were preparing the specimen. Fortunately the suffering from mosquitoes and black flies on the Barrens is largely limited to the months of July and August.

Even at this season the Caribou are granted occasional relief from the blood-sucking flies. The characteristic strong winds of that region help greatly in keeping the insects in abeyance. Furthermore, both mosquitoes and black flies become more or less inactive whenever the temperature drops to the neighborhood of 45° (_cf._ Weber, 1950: 196), and this happens fairly frequently even in mid-summer. Finally, the black flies retire during the hours of darkness; and short as these hours are, the relief they bring is very noteworthy. These conditions offer something of a contrast to those surrounding the Woodland Caribou. It is difficult to see how that animal can secure a moment's respite from mosquito attacks, by day or night, through most of the summer. In its forested habitat there is not sufficient lowering of the temperature nor sufficient penetration of strong winds. Hard as the life of the Barren Ground Caribou may be, it seems to have a few advantages not available to the Woodland Caribou; and possibly it is these that have enabled it to attain a vastly greater population than the other species.

Of 52 mosquito specimens brought back from the Windy River area, 39 were _Aedes nearcticus_ Dyar, 2 were probably _Aedes fitchii_ (F. and Y.), and the remaining 11 were of the same genus but not in condition for specific determination (_cf._ Dyar, 1919; Weber, 1950: 196). _Ae. nearcticus_ is holarctic in distribution; in North America it occurs chiefly on the Barren Grounds, but is known from as far south as Montana. _Ae. fitchii_ ranges through the northern United States and Canada, north to the limit of trees. Of 26 black flies, all were _Simulium venustum_ Say, which occurs in northern Europe, Alaska, and Labrador, south to the Adirondacks, Illinois, Iowa, Georgia, and Alabama. (Names and ranges supplied by Dr. Alan Stone, of the United States Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine.) These mosquitoes and black flies were presumably the species attacking the Caribou in the Nueltin Lake region.

The effects of the two parasitic flies are felt nearly throughout the year. The adult warble fly (_Oedemagena tarandi_) is seen in the Windy River area in August, when the Caribou are on their southward march. On August 22 Fred Schweder, Jr., secured three of them on freshly killed Caribou and another that alighted on himself--all on an island in Windy Bay. His name for them is "deer fly." He reported seeing about 50 of them on this day (more than ever before), although he sighted only 10 Caribou. As he remarked, these fuzzy flies look much like bumblebees. Three days later, along Little River, something buzzed past me while a band of Caribou were near. It was probably this species, although it suggested a hummingbird almost as much as a bumblebee. On several subsequent August days, while numbers of Caribou were passing very close to me, I detected no more of the warble flies. In general, they might well have escaped my notice owing to my preoccupation with photography; but on August 30, when I looked for them on one of the nearest animals, I saw none. Evidently they are not sufficiently numerous (like horse-flies on cattle) to be constantly in attendance on each Caribou. In fact, a comparative scarcity (or at least difficulty of capture) may be surmised from the fact that the Canadian Arctic Expedition 1913-18 brought back only three adult females--one from Teller, Alaska, and two from Bernard Harbour, Dolphin and Union Strait (Malloch, 1919: 55). Weber (1950) collected no Oestridae in Arctic Alaska.