Part 6

I have already sufficiently described the territorial gains of Roumania, Servia, and Greece. But I must not pass over Montenegro in silence. As the invincible warriors of King Nicholas opened the war against the Ottoman Empire, so they joined Servia and Greece in the struggle {117} against Bulgaria. On Sunday, June 29, I saw encamped across the street from my hotel in Uskub 15,000 of these Montenegrin soldiers who had arrived only a day or two before by train from Mitrowitza, into which they had marched across Novi Bazar. Tall, lithe, daring, with countenances bespeaking clean lives, they looked as fine a body of men as one could find anywhere in the world, and their commanding figures and manly bearing were set off to great advantage by their striking and picturesque uniforms. The officers told me next day that in a few hours they would be fighting at Ghevgheli. Their splendid appearance seemed an augury of victory for the Serbs.

Montenegro too received her reward by an extension of territory on the south to the frontier of Albania (as fixed by the Great Powers) and a still more liberal extension on the east in the sandjak of Novi Bazar. This patriarchal kingdom will probably remain unchanged so long as the present King lives, {118} the much-beloved King Nicholas, a genuinely Homeric Father of his People. But forces of an economic, social, and political character are already at work tending to draw it into closer union with Servia, and the Balkan wars have given a great impetus to these forces. A united Serb state, with an Adriatic littoral which would include the harbors of Antivari and Dulcigno, may be the future which destiny has in store for the sister kingdoms of Servia and Montenegro. If so, it is likely to be a mutually voluntary union; and neither Austria-Hungary nor Italy, the warders of the Adriatic, would seem to have any good ground to object to such a purely domestic arrangement.

THE PROBLEM OF ALBANIA

The Albanians, though they rather opposed than assisted the Allies in the war against Turkey, were set off as an independent nation by the Great Powers at the instigation of Austria-Hungary with the support of Italy. The {119} determination of the boundaries of the new state was the resultant of conflicting forces in operation in the European concert. On the north while Scutari was retained for Albania through the insistence of Austria-Hungary, Russian influence was strong enough to secure the Albanian centres of Ipek and Djakova and Prisrend, as well as Dibra on the east, for the allied Serb states. This was a sort of compensation to Servia for her loss of an Adriatic outlet at a time when the war between the Allies, which was destined so greatly to extend her territories, was not foreseen. But while in this way Albanians were excluded from the new state on the north and east, an incongruous compensation was afforded it on the south by an unjustifiable extension into northern Epirus, whose population is prevailingly Greek.

The location of the boundary between Albania and New Greece was forced upon the Great Powers by the stand of Italy. During the first war the Greeks had occupied Epirus or southern {120} Albania as far north as a line drawn from a point a little above Khimara on the coast due east toward Lake Presba, so that the cities of Tepeleni and Koritza were included in the Greek area. But Italy protested that the Greek occupation of territory on both sides of the Straits of Corfu would menace the control of the Adriatic and insisted that the boundary between Albania and Greece should start from a point on the coast opposite the southern part of the island of Corfu. Greece, accordingly, was compelled to evacuate most of the territory she had occupied above Janina. And Albania subsequently attempted to assert her jurisdiction over it.

But the task of Albania is bound to be difficult. For though the Great Powers have provided it with a ruler--the German Prince William of Wied--there is no organized state. The Albanians are one of the oldest races in Europe, if not the oldest. But they have never created a state. And to-day they are hopelessly {121} divided. It is a land of universal opposition--north against south, tribe against tribe, bey against bey. The majority of the population are Mohammedan but there are many Roman Catholics in the north and in the south the Greek Orthodox Church is predominant. The inhabitants of the north, who are called Ghegs, are divided into numerous tribes whose principal occupation is fighting with one another under a system of perpetual blood-feuds and inextinguishable vendettas. There are no tribes in the south, but the people, who are known as Tosks, live under territorial magnates called beys, who are practically the absolute rulers of their districts. The country as a whole is a strange farrago of survivals of primitive conditions. And it is not only without art and literature, but without manufactures or trade or even agriculture. It is little wonder that the Greeks of Epirus feel outraged by the destiny which the European Powers have imposed upon them--to be torn {122} from their own civilized and Christian kindred and subjected to the sway of the barbarous Mohammedans who occupy Albania. Nor is it surprising that since Hellenic armies have evacuated northern Epirus in conformity with the decree of the Great Powers, the inhabitants of the district, all the way from Santi Quaranta to Koritza, are declaring their independence and fighting the Albanians who attempt to bring them under the yoke.

The future of Albania is full of uncertainty. The State, however, was not created for the Albanians, who for the rest, are not in a condition to administer or maintain it. The state was established in the interests of Austria-Hungary and Italy. And those powers are likely to shape its future.

THE AEGEAN ISLANDS AND CRETE

For the sacrifice demanded of Greece in Epirus the Great Powers permitted her by way of compensation to retain all the Aegean Islands {123} occupied by her during the war, except Imbros, Tenedos, and the Rabbit Islands at the mouth of the Dardanelles. These islands, however, Greece is never to fortify or convert into naval bases. This allotment of the Asiatic Islands (which includes all but Rhodes and the Dodecanese, temporarily held by Italy as a pledge of the evacuation of Libya by the Turkish officers and troops) has given great dissatisfaction in Turkey, where it is declared it would be better to have a war with Greece than cede certain islands especially Chios and Mitylene. The question of the disposition of the islands had, however, been committed by Turkey to the Great Powers in the Treaty of London. And Turkish unofficial condemnation of the action of the Powers now creates a dangerous situation. Mr. Venizelos declared not long ago, with the enthusiastic approval of the chamber, that the security of Greece lay alone in the possession of a strong navy.

For Mr. Venizelos personally nothing in all {124} these great events can have been more gratifying than the achievement of the union of Crete with Greece. This was consummated on December 14, when the Greek flag was hoisted on Canea Fort in the presence of King Constantine, the prime minister, and the consuls of the Great Powers, and saluted with 101 guns by the Greek fleet.

KING CONSTANTINE

Fortune in an extraordinary degree has favored the King of the Hellenes--Fortune and his own wise head and valiant arm and the loyal support of his people. When before has a Prince taken supreme command of a nation's army and in the few months preceding and succeeding his accession to the throne by successful generalship doubled the area and population of his country?

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COST OF THE WAR

The Balkan wars have been bloody and costly. We shall never know of the thousands of men, women, and children who died from privation, disease, and massacre. But the losses of the dead and wounded in the armies were for Montenegro 11,200, for Greece 68,000, for Servia 71,000, for Bulgaria 156,000, and for Turkey about the same as for Bulgaria. The losses in treasure were as colossal as in blood. Only rough computations are possible. But the direct military expenditures are estimated at figures varying from a billion and a quarter to a billion and a half of dollars. This of course takes no account of the paralysis of productive industry, trade, and commerce or of the destruction of existing economic values.

Yet great and momentous results have been achieved. Although seated again in his ancient capital of Adrianople, the Moslem has been expelled from Europe, or at any rate is no {126} longer a European Power. For the first time in more than five centuries, therefore, conditions of stable equilibrium are now possible for the Christian nations of the Balkans. Whether the present alignment of those states toward one another and towards the Great Powers is destined to continue it would be foolhardy to attempt to predict.

THE FUTURE OF THE BALKANS

But without pretending to cast a horoscope, certain significant facts may be mentioned in a concluding word. If the Balkan states are left to themselves, if they are permitted to settle their own affairs without the intervention of the Great Powers, there is no reason why the existing relations between Greece, Servia, Montenegro, and Roumania, founded as they are on mutual interest, should not continue; and if they continue, peace will be assured in spite of Bulgaria's cry for revenge and readjustment. The danger lies in the influence of the {127} Great Powers with their varying attractions and repulsions. France, Germany, and Great Britain, disconnected with the Balkans and remote from them, are not likely to exert much direct individual influence. But their connections with the Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente would not leave them altogether free to take isolated action. And two other members of those European groups--Russia and Austria-Hungary--have long been vitally interested in the Balkan question; while the opposition to Servian annexation on the Adriatic littoral and of Greek annexation in Epirus now for the first time reveals the deep concern of Italy in the same question.

The Serbs are Slavs. And the unhappy relations between Servia and Austria-Hungary have always intensified their pro-Russian proclivities. The Roumanians are a Romance people, like the French and Italians, and they have hitherto been regarded as a Balkan extension of the Triple Alliance. The attitude of {128} Austria-Hungary, however, during the Balkan wars has caused a cooling of Roumanian friendship, so that its transference to Russia is no longer inconceivable or even improbable. Greece desires to be independent of both groups of the European system, but the action of Italy in regard to Northern Epirus and in regard to Rhodes and the Dodecanese has produced a feeling of irritation and resentment among the Greeks which nothing is likely to allay or even greatly alleviate. Bulgaria in the past has carried her desire to live an independent national life to the point of hostility to Russia, but since Stambuloff's time she has shown more natural sentiments towards her great Slav sister and liberator. Whether the desire of revenge against Servia (and Greece) will once more draw her toward Austria-Hungary only time can disclose.

In any event it will take a long time for all the Balkan states to recover from the terrible exhaustion of the two wars of 1912 and 1913. {129} Their financial resources have been depleted; their male population has been decimated. Necessity, therefore, is likely to co-operate with the community of interest established by the Treaty of Bukarest in the maintenance of conditions of stable equilibrium in the Balkans. Of course the peace-compelling forces operative in the Balkan states themselves might be counter-acted by hostile activities on the part of some of the Great Powers. And there is one danger-point for which the Great Powers themselves are solely responsible. This, as I have already explained, is Albania. An artificial creation with unnatural boundaries, it is a grave question whether this so-called state can either manage its own affairs or live in peace with its Serb and Greek neighbors. At this moment the Greeks of Epirus (whom the Great Powers have transferred to Albania) are resisting to the death incorporation in a state which outrages their deepest and holiest sentiments of religion, race, nationality, and humane {130} civilization. On the other hand the Hoti and Gruda tribes on the north fiercely resent annexation to Montenegro (which the Great Powers have decreed) and threaten to summon to their support other Malissori tribes with whom they have had a defensive alliance for several centuries. If Prince William of Wied is unable to cope with these difficulties, Italy and Austria-Hungary may think it necessary to intervene in Albania. But the intervention of either would almost certainly provoke compensatory action on the part of other European Powers, especially Russia.

One can only hope that the Great Powers may have wisdom granted to them to find a peaceful solution of the embarrassing problem which they have created in setting up the new state of Albania. That the Albanians themselves will have an opportunity to develop their own national independence I find it impossible to believe. Yet I heard in the summer of 1913 at Valona from the lips of Ismail Kemal Bey, {131} the head of the provisional government, a most impressive statement of his hopes and aspirations for an independent Albania and his faith and confidence in its future, in which he claimed to voice the sentiments of the Albanian people. But, as I have already explained, I think it doubtful whether under the most favorable external circumstances the Albanians are at present qualified to establish and maintain an independent state. And their destiny is so inextricably entangled with the ambitions of some of the Great Powers that the experiment stands no chance of getting a fair trial. I heartily wish the circumstances were other than they are. For as an American I sympathize with the aspirations of all struggling nationalities to be free and independent. And my interest in Albania is deepened, as the interest of all Americans must be deepened, by the fact that a large number of Albanians have now found a home in the United States.

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INDEX

Abdul Hamid II, misgovernment, 32.

Adrianople, capture by Murad I, 4; left to Turkey, 9, 25; holds out against Bulgaria, 56; _sine qua non_ at Peace Conference, 57; captured, 57; question of retention of, 58; reoccupied by Turkish army, 109; ceded back to Turkey, 111.

Adriatic, question of supremacy over, 68.

Aegean Islands, Greece takes, 52; left to decision of Powers, 59; given to Greece, 122.

Albania, Montenegrins, 53; to be left to Powers, 59; cause of friction, 67; problem of, 118; given a ruler, 120; danger-point of the Balkans, 129; northern tribes oppose absorption by Montenegro, 130; future of, 131.

Alexander, Prince, of Bulgaria, 27.

Area, see under countries.

Asen brothers, free Bulgaria, 10.

Athens, recaptured, 22.

Austria, discusses division of Turkey, 7; given Bosnia and Herzegovina, 27; intervenes in Macedonia, 33; demands independent Albania, 67, 118; opposes Servia, 68; dislikes Slav hegemony, 97; interests in Balkans, 127.

Balkan Alliance, see Balkan states.

Balkan states, quarrel, 11; peninsula under Moslems, 13; massacres in, 25; large part of peninsula lost to Turkey, 27; dissensions among, 60; alliance, 34; rival ambitions among, 64; treaty restrictions, 72; causes of war between, 75; previous fighting between, 108; make peace, 110; future, 126.

Balkan wars, cause of first war, 30; cause of second war, 64; division of fighting, 54; cost, 125. (For progress, see under countries.)

Basil II, conquers Bulgaria, 10.

Belgrade, conquered by Dushan, 12.

Berane, massacre at, 36.

Berlin, Treaty of, 21; Congress of, 78.

Blockade, Greek, of Turkey, 51.

Boris, accepts Christianity, 9.

Bosnia, conquered by Dushan, 12; delegated to Austria, 27.

Bosphorus, Turks on, 3.

Brusa, surrendered, 3.

Bukarest, see Treaty of, and Peace Conference.

Bulgaria, independent, 8; suffers most, 8; church, progress, area, 9; under Moslem despotism, 11; ravaged by Turks, decline, 14; educational movement, 23; exarchate established, 24; revolt against Turkey, 25; "Big Bulgaria," 25; proclaimed independent, 26; astounding progress, 27; area and population, 29; declares war against Turkey, 34; alliance with Greece, 35; with Servia, 35; decide to mobilize, 36; enters Thrace, 54; success at Kirk Kilisse, Lule Burgas, and Chorlu, 55; capture Adrianople, 57; disagreement with Servia, 65; rivalry with Greece, 65; as to division of Macedonia, 72; demands that Servia observe treaty, 76; claims of, 77; exarchate in Macedonia, 81; alleged majority in Macedonia, 88; jingoism in, 96; position of, as to arbitration of Czar, 99; uncompromising policy, 101; her mistake, 102; opens war, 107; defeat by Allies, 109; makes peace, 110; present attitude, 127.

Byron, Lord, volunteer in Greece, 21.

Byzantine Empire, falling before Turks, 4; annihilates Bulgaria under Samuel, 10.

Chataldja, now border of Turkey, 8; Bulgarians at, 55.

Chorlu, Bulgarians victorious at, 55.

Christians, defeated by Moslems, 5; races quarrel, 11; In Macedonia, 31; oppressed, 13.

Constantine, King, 20; as Crown Prince, commanding general, 48; success, 50; captures Janina, 57; ability and achievements, 124.

Constantinople, seat of Byzantine Empire, 4; captured by Mohammed II, 5; left to Turkey, 8; Russia at gates of, 25.

Crete, question of, 42; captured by Venetians, 43; present condition, 43, 44; becomes autonomous, 44; elects members to Greek parliament, 45; process of annexation to Greece, 45, 124; Turkish sovereignty withdrawn, 59.

Czar, arbiter of Treaty of Partition, 95; summons Servia and Bulgaria to submit their disputes, 97.

Daneff, Dr., prime minister of Bulgaria, 98; tries to stop war, 107; rejects Roumanian claim, 112; resigns, 109.

Dushan, Stephen, rules Servia, 12.

Eastern Roumelia, see Roumelia.

Elassona, Greeks win at, 50.

England, fleet at Navarino, 22; joins Russia to reform Macedonia, 33; influence, 127.

Enver Bey, heads Young Turk revolt, 58.

"Eothen," does not mention Bulgaria, 15.

Epinus holds out, 56; Greeks of, resist incorporation in Albania, 129.

European, aid for Greece, 21.

Evans, Sir Arthur, excavations in Crete, 43.

Exarchate, Bulgarian, 19; Sultan's firman, 24; in Macedonia, 81.

Ferdinand, Prince, of Bulgaria, 27; King, 55, 108.

France, fleet at Navarino, 22; influence, 127.

Gabrovo, school of, 23.

Gallipoli, entry of Turks into, 4.

George, King of Greece, assassinated, 22; experienced ruler, 36; Prince, Commissioner of Crete, 44.

Germany, influence, 127.

Gibbon, quoted as to Czar Simeon, 9.

Gladstone, denunciation of Turkish atrocities, 25.

Great Britain, see England.

Greece, becomes independent, 7; ecclesiastical domination of Slavs, 16; Greek millet, 17; ascendancy in Bulgaria, 18; influence in Turkish Empire, 19; war of independence, 21; Powers make her independent, 22; boundaries, 28; area and population, 29; causes of war with Turkey, 32; declares war, 34; alliance with Bulgaria, 35; reorganizes army, 37; near alliance with Turkey, 40; Cretan question, 42; mobilization, 48; enters Macedonia, 49; conquers at Sarandaporon, Serfidje, Elassona, Veria, and Jenitsa, 50; blockades Turkey, 51; captures Janina, 57; rivalry with Bulgaria, 65; favors Servian egress to Aegean, 71; question of division of Macedonia, 74; propaganda in Macedonia, 83; position of division of territory, 104; conciliatory methods, 105; alliance against Bulgaria, 108; treaty of peace and extension of territory, 110; annexation of Crete, 124; attitude toward Italy, 128.

Gueshoff, agrees to conference of Allies, 95; statesman, 96; resigns, 97.

Hellenism, cause of, 36.

Hellespont, Turks cross, 4.

Herzegovina, conquered by Stephen Nemanyo, 11; delegated to Austria, 27.

"Internal Organization" in Macedonia, 32.

Ipek, Archbishop of, 12.

Islam, millet of, 16.

Ismail Kemal Bey on Albania's future, 130.

Italy holds Rhodes, 52; demands independent Albania, 67, 118; desires control of Adriatic, 69; protests against Greece at Corfu, 120.

Janina, holds out, 56; falls, 57.

Janissaries, 13; revolt, 14.

Jenitsa, Turks defeated at, 50.

Kara-George, leads Servians, 20; dynasty, 21.

Kiamil Pasha, Grand Vizier, 48; driven out, 58.

Kilkis, battle of, 109.

Kirk Kilisse, Bulgarian victory, 55.

Kossovo, field of, 4; avenged, 53.

Kochana, massacre at, 36.

Kumanovo, Servians defeat Turks at, 53.

Lazar, the Serb, 4.

Literary revival in Bulgaria, 23.

London, see Treaty of, and Peace Conference.

Lule Burgas, Bulgarian victory, 55.

Macedonia, ruled by Murad I, 4; cause of first Balkan war, 30; question of its division, 72; racial problem, 79, 89; religion in, 81; alleged Bulgarian majority in, 88; claims to central portion of, 89.

Mahmud Shevket Pasha, Grand Vizier, 58.

Massacre, in 1876, 25; at Kochana and Berane, 36; inflames Slavs, 47.

Mehemet Ali, fights against Greece, 22.

Meluna Pass, Greeks enter, 49.

Millet, a Turkish term, 16.

Mohammed II, conquers Constantinople, 5.

Mohammedan, intolerance, 8; Balkan peninsula under, 13; incapacity, 31.

Monastir, captured by Serbs, 53.

Montenegro, remembers Kossovo, 5; conquered by Nemanyo, 11; independent by Treaty of Berlin, 27; area and population, 29; declares war against Turkey, 34; fires first shot of war, 53; captures Scutari, 57; work and reward, 116; inclination toward Servia, 118.

Moslem, see Mohammedan.

Murad I, captures Adrianople, 4.

Navarino, Battle of, 22.

Nazim Pasha, murdered, 58.

Near Eastern Question, Macedonia, 30.

Nemanyo, Stephen, unites Servia, 11.

Nicaea, surrender of, 3.

Nicholas, King of Montenegro, 53; Homeric Father, 118.

Nigrita, Greeks and Bulgarians fight at, 66.

Novi-Bazar, Montenegrins in, 53.

Obrenovich, Milosh, leads Servians, 20; dynasty, 21.

Ochrida, location, 9; given bishop, 81; religious division, 88.

Orkhan, Brusa surrenders to, 3.

Otto, of Bavaria, becomes King of Greece, 22.

Ottoman Empire, see Turkey.

Pashitch, demands revision of treaty, 95.

Patriarch, Greek, of Constantinople, 17.

Patriarchate restricted, 19, 24.

Peace Conference, at London, 57; at Bukarest, 110.

Peace, terms of, with Turkey, 59; between Allies, 110.

Peter, King, 21.

Phanariots, Turkish term, 19.

Pomaks, become Moslem, 14.

Population, see under countries.

Porte, see Turkey.

Powers, intervene in Greece, 22; recognize Bulgarian independence, 26; views of Balkan success, 55; meet at London, 57; lack of success, 57; insist on peace, 58; give Silistria to Roumania, 112; in Albania, 119.

Prilip, Serbs capture, 53.

Racial, division, 30; sympathies, 31; problem in Macedonia, 79; fallacies in Macedonia, 84; characteristics, 89; in Albania, 121.

Religion, Turks divide subjects by, 16; contest in Bulgaria, 24; in Crete, 43, 44; in Macedonia, 81; in Albania, 121.

Roumania, becomes independent, 7; by Treaty of Berlin, 27; convention with Greece and Servia, 109; seizes Silistria, 109; at Treaty of Bukarest, 112; justification, 113; attitude toward Triple Alliance, 127.

Roumelia, Eastern, union with Bulgaria, 26; annexation, 78.

Russia, discusses the division of Turkey, 7; fleet at Navarino, 22; declares war against Turkey, 25; intervention in Macedonia, 33; rivalry with Austria, 98; interest in Balkans, 127.

St. Petersburg, conference of allies at, 95.

Saloniki, left to Turkey, 9; conquered by Greeks, 51; desirability, 70.

Samuel, reigns in Bulgaria, 10.

San Stefano, Treaty of, 25; destroyed by Powers, 26.

Sarandaporon, Turks driven from, 50.