Part 4

DEEP SUBMERGENCE RESEARCH VEHICLE On April 18, 1965, President Johnson announced that the Atomic Energy Commission and Department of the Navy were undertaking development of a nuclear-powered deep submergence research and engineering vehicle. This manned vehicle, designated the NR-1, will have vastly greater endurance than any other yet developed or planned, because of its nuclear power. Its development will provide the basis for future nuclear-powered oceanographic research vehicles of even greater versatility and depth capability.

The NR-1 will be able to move at maximum speed for periods of time limited only by the amount of food and supplies it carries. With a crew of five and two scientists, the vehicle will be able to make detailed studies of the ocean bottom, temperature, currents, and other phenomena for military, commercial, and scientific uses. The nuclear propulsion plant will give it great independence from surface support ships and essentially unlimited endurance for exploration.

The submarine will have viewing ports for visual observation of its surroundings and of the ocean bottom. A remote grapple will permit collection of marine samples and other objects. The NR-1 is expected to be capable of exploring areas of the Continental Shelf, which appears to contain the most accessible wealth in mineral and food resources in the seas. Exploratory charting of this kind may help the United States in establishing sovereignty over parts of the Continental Shelf; a ship with its depth capability can explore an ocean-bottom area several times larger than the United States.

The reactor plant for the vehicle is being designed by the General Electric Company’s Knolls Atomic Power Laboratory, Schenectady, New York. The remainder of the propulsion plant is being designed by the Electric Boat Division, General Dynamics Corporation, Groton, Connecticut.

Scientists are already beginning to implant small sea floor laboratories. In the future, when large permanent undersea installations for scientific investigation, mining, or fish farming become a reality, nuclear reactors like the one designed for research submersibles or the one already in use in Antarctica and other remote locations[15] will serve as their power plants.

ISOTOPIC POWER SOURCES

The ocean is a logistically remote environment, in the sense that conventional combustible fuels can’t be used underwater unless supplied with their own sources of oxygen. It is usually extremely costly to take anything heavy or bulky into the deep ocean. Even if the two essential components of combustion—fuel and oxygen—could be delivered economically to an undersea base or craft, the extreme back pressure of the depths would present serious exhaust problems. Yet deep beneath the sea is just where we now propose to do large amounts of work requiring huge supplies of reliable energy. The lack of reliable and extended duration power sources is perhaps one of the most critical requirements for expansion of underwater and marine technology. For example, the pressing need for measurements of atmospheric and oceanic data to support scientific, commercial, and military operations will in the future require literally hundreds of oceanographic and meteorological buoys deployed throughout the world to take simultaneous measurements and time-series observations at specific sites.

Some of these buoys will support and monitor up to 100 sensors each. These devices record a variety of physical, chemical, and radiological phenomena above, at, or below the surface. Periodically the sensor data will be converted to digital form and stored on magnetic tape for later retrieval by distant shore-based or shipboard radio command, by satellite command (for retransmittal to ground stations), or by physical recovery of the tapes. Individually, each buoy will not require a great deal of energy to operate, but will have to operate reliably over long periods of time. Conventional power sources are being used for the prototype buoys now under development and testing, but these robot ocean platforms in the future will make excellent use of nuclear energy supplied by isotopic power sources.

RADIO ANTENNA WEATHER SENSORS WARNING BEACON NUCLEAR GENERATOR

The SNAP-7D isotope power generator has been operating unattended since January 1964 on a deep-ocean moored buoy in the Gulf of Mexico. This U. S. Navy NOMAD (Navy Oceanographic and Meteorological Automatic Device) buoy is powered by a 60-watt, strontium-90 radioisotope source, which was developed by the AEC Division of Reactor Development and Technology. This weather station transmits data for 2 minutes and 20 seconds every 3 hours. This data includes air temperature, barometric pressure, and wind velocity and direction. Storm detectors trigger special hourly transmissions during severe weather conditions. The generator operates continuously and charges storage batteries between transmissions. Some power is used to light a navigation beacon to alert passing ships.

Energy from the heat of radioisotope decay has been used on a “proof-of-principle” basis in several other instances involving ocean or marine technology.

An experimental ⁹⁰Sr isotope-powered acoustic navigation beacon (SNAP-7E) now rests on the sea floor in 15,000 feet of water near Bermuda. Devices such as these not only will enable nearby surface research or salvage vessels to locate their positions precisely (something very difficult to do at sea) and to return to the same spot, but the beacons also will aid submarine navigation (see page 48).

A U. S. Coast Guard lighthouse located in Chesapeake Bay has been powered by a 60-watt, ⁹⁰Sr power source, SNAP-7B, for 2 years without maintenance or service. This unit was subsequently relocated for use in another application (described below).

The first commercial use of one of these “atomic batteries” began in 1965 when the SNAP-7B 60-watt generator went into operation on an unmanned Phillips Petroleum Company offshore oil platform, 40 miles southeast of Cameron, Louisiana. The generator operates flashing navigational lights and, in bad weather, an electronic foghorn (see page 49). This unit will be tested for 2 years to determine the economic feasibility of routinely using isotopic power devices on a commercial basis.

Buoyancy tank Sound amplifier Nuclear-powered sound source Ocean bottom

Total height: 10 ft 2 in Armored cable Pressure vessel Capacitor bank Fuel capsules Biological shield Equipment package Voltage converter Depleted uranium Thermoelectric generator System support structure

Fog Horn Beacon Beacon Snap-7B nuclear generator

The radioisotope-powered devices previously described were developed by the AEC under the SNAP-7 Program.[16] The testing of these units has demonstrated the advisability of developing reliable and unattended nuclear power sources for use in remote environments without compromise to nuclear safety standards. As a result of the success of these tests, a variety of potential oceanographic applications have been identified. A study, conducted by Aerojet-General Corporation in conjunction with Global Marine Exploration Company and Northwest Consultant Oceanographers, Inc., described ocean applications including underwater navigational aids, acoustic beacons, channel markers, cable boosters, weather buoys, offshore oil well controls along with innumerable oceanographic research applications. This study was sponsored by the AEC Division of Isotopes Development.

In order to satisfy the requirements for these and other applications, the AEC has begun developing a series of compact and highly reliable isotope power devices that are designed to be economically competitive with alternative power sources. Currently underway are two specific projects, SNAP-21 and SNAP-23.

SNAP-21 is a two-phase project to develop a series of compact strontium-90 power systems for deep-sea and ocean-bottom uses (20,000-foot depths). The first phase of design and component development on a basic 10-watt system already has been completed, and a second phase development and test effort now under way will extend through 1970. A series of power sources in the 10- and 20-watt range will be available for general purpose deep-ocean application.

The SNAP-23 project involves the development of a series of economically attractive strontium-90 power systems for remote terrestrial uses. This project will result in 25-watt, 60-watt, and 100-watt units capable of long-term operation in surface buoys, offshore oil platforms, weather stations, and microwave repeater stations.

In addition to the above, effort is underway by the AEC to develop an isotope-fueled heater that will be used by aquanauts in the Navy’s Sealab Program (see page 12). Future activities, now being planned, will involve the development of large isotope power sources (1-10 electric kilowatts) and small nuclear reactors (50-100 kilowatts) for use in manned and unmanned deep-ocean platforms.

Ocean Engineering

Considerable engineering experience has been derived from the work of federal agencies in development of the largest taut-moored instrumented buoy system ever deployed in the deep ocean. Developed by Ocean Science 81 Engineering, Inc., it is useful in observation and prediction of environmental changes.

The system embodies substantial advances in design. It incorporates, among other features, an acoustically commanded underwater winch for adjustment of the mooring depth after the buoy is deployed, and for recovering a 16,000-pound submerged data-recording instrument canister. This buoy system can survive being moored in up to 18,000-foot depths of the open ocean for upward of 30 days.

The very first deep-ocean, taut-moored buoy system was developed for the government in 1954, and has since become an important tool for oceanographers and others who seek stable instrument platforms at sea. The buoys have the advantage of minimizing horizontal movement due to currents, winds, and waves.

The National Marine Consultants Division of Interstate Electronics Corporation has developed for the government a system for measuring the propagation of seismic sea waves (tsunamis).

Work of these sorts contributes materially to reliable ocean engineering. And the measurements made by these sophisticated instruments contribute to our knowledge of ocean fluid dynamics and wave mechanics.

Corrosion is a huge, ever-present problem plaguing oceanographic engineers, ship designers, mariners, operators of desalination plants, petroleum companies with offshore facilities, and, in fact, everyone who places structures in salt water to do useful work. While the basic mechanisms of corrosion are known, there are many detailed aspects that are not: For example, the precise role of bacteriological slimes in causing corrosion on supposedly protected structures. Radioisotope tracers now are helping engineers follow the chemical, physical, and biological actions in corrosion processes.

Fresh Water from Seawater

In 1960 the chairman of the board of a large U. S. corporation made a fundamental policy decision for his company: Since the greatest critical need of man in the next decade would be fresh water, his company would begin working to produce large volumes of fresh water—including the development of methods for desalting seawater. His pioneering analysis proved to be prophetic.

Throughout the world, more people are using more water for more purposes than ever before. Many areas of the world, including some that are densely populated, have been parched since the dawn of history. In others where water was once abundant, not only are natural sources being depleted faster than they are replaced, but many rivers and lakes have been so polluted that they can now scarcely be used.

The world’s greatest resource of water is the ocean, but energy is required to remove the salt from it and make it potable or even useful for agriculture and industry. The energy produced by nuclear reactors is considered economical in the large quantities that soon will be required.

The AEC and the Office of Saline Water of the Department of the Interior, after a preliminary study, have joined with the Metropolitan Water District of Southern California and the electric utility firms serving the area, to begin construction of a very large nuclear-power desalting plant on a man-made island off the California coast. The plant, when completed in the 1970s, will have an initial water capacity of 50 million gallons per day and also will generate about 1,800,000 kilowatts of electricity. Additional desalting capacity is planned for addition later to achieve a total water capacity of 150 million gallons per day.

Plans for other nuclear-powered desalting projects around the world are being discussed by the United States government, the International Atomic Energy Agency and the governments of many other nations. Some of these also may be in operation during the early 1970s.[17]

These projects followed extended detailed studies, including one “milestone” investigation at the AEC’s Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Tennessee, in which the economic feasibility of using very large nuclear reactors coupled to very large desalting equipment to produce power and water was determined.

The significance of these studies was recognized by President Johnson in 1964, when he told the Third International Conference on Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy: “The time is coming when a single desalting plant powered by nuclear energy will produce hundreds of millions of gallons of fresh water—and large amounts of electricity—every day.”

It is obvious that today realization of that goal is much nearer.

The installation of new and larger desalting plants will in itself require extensive additional oceanographic research. By the nature of their operation these plants will be discharging considerable volumes of heated water with a salt content higher than that of the sea. Throughout the ocean, but particularly in the estuaries, sea life is sensitive to the concentration of ocean salts and temperature. Studies of the effect of such discharges will be an essential part of any large-scale desalination program.

Radiation Preservation of Seafood

The use of nuclear radiation for the preservation of food is a new process of particular importance for seafood. The ocean constitutes the world’s largest source of animal protein food. Yet the harvests of the sea can be stored safely, even with refrigeration, for far shorter periods than can most other foods. In many parts of the world, this tendency to spoil makes fish products available only to people who live near seacoasts.

Many types of seafood, however, when exposed to radiation from radioisotopes or small accelerators, can be stored under normal refrigeration for up to four weeks without deterioration. The process does not alter the appearance or taste of the seafood; it merely destroys bacteria that cause spoilage. This fact holds promise not only for the world’s protein-starved populations, but also for the economic well-being of commercial fishermen, whose markets would be much expanded.

In support of this program, the AEC has built and is operating at Gloucester, Massachusetts, a prototype commercial seafood irradiator plant capable of processing 2000 pounds of seafood an hour. The radiation is supplied by a cobalt-60 source. Private industry is cooperating with the AEC in the evaluation of this facility.[18]

Project Plowshare

Nuclear explosives are, among other things, large-scale, low-cost excavation devices. In this respect, with the proper pre-detonation study and engineering, they are ideally suited for massive earth-moving and “geological engineering” projects, including the construction of harbors and canals. The western coasts of three continents, Australia, Africa, and South America, are sparsely supplied with good harbors. A number of studies have been undertaken as to the feasibility of using nuclear explosives for digging deepwater harbors. Undoubtedly at some time in the future, these projects will be carried out.

In addition, there are many places in the world where the construction of a sea-level canal would provide shorter and safer routes for ocean shipping, expedite trade and commerce, or open up barren and unpopulated, but mineral-rich lands to settlers and profitable development. The AEC Division of Peaceful Nuclear Explosives operates a continuing program to develop engineering skills for such projects.[19] Construction of a sea-level canal across the Central American isthmus is one well-known proposal for this “Plowshare” program.

The use of nuclear explosives in this manner may one day change the very shape of the world ocean.

A New _Fram_

Just about 70 years ago, the oceanographer and explorer, Dr. Fridtjof Nansen completed his famous voyage aboard the research vessel _Fram_, which remained locked in the Arctic ice pack for 3 years, drifting around the top of the world while the men aboard her studied the oceanography of the polar sea. Now the National Science Foundation has taken the first steps toward building a modern version of _Fram_ for Arctic studies. This time the vessel will be an Arctic Drift Barge containing the best equipment modern technology can offer—including, it is proposed, a central nuclear power plant to guarantee heat and power. Scheduled for completion sometime in the 1970s, this project represents yet another use of the atom in the study of the ocean.

THE THREE-DIMENSIONAL OCEAN

The ocean is no longer an area of isolated scientific interest, nor merely a turbulent two-dimensional surface over which man conducts his commerce and occasionally fights his wars.

In today’s world, the ocean has assumed its full third dimension. Men and women are going down into it to study, to play, to work, and, alas, sometimes to fight. As they go, they are taking atomic energy with them. In many instances, only the harnessed power in the nuclei of atoms permits them to penetrate the depths of the mighty sea and there attain their objectives.

SUGGESTED REFERENCES

Books

_The Bountiful Sea_, Seabrook Hull, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey 07632, 1964, 340 pp., $6.95.

_This Great and Wide Sea_, R. E. Coker, Harper & Row, New York 10016, 1962, 235 pp., $2.25 (paperback).

_Exploring the Secrets of the Sea_, William J. Cromie, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey 07632, 1962, 300 pp., $5.95.

_The Sea Around Us_, Rachel L. Carson, Oxford University Press, Inc., New York 10016, 1961, 237 pp., $5.00 (hardback); $0.60 (paperback) from the New American Library of World Literature, Inc., New York 10022.

_The Ocean Adventure_, Gardner Soule, Appleton-Century, New York 10017, 1966, 278 pp., $5.95.

_Proving Ground: An Account of the Radiobiological Studies in the Pacific, 1946-1961_, Neal O. Hines, University of Washington Press, Seattle, Washington 98105, 1962, 366 pp., $6.75.

_The Effects of Atomic Radiation on Oceanography and Fisheries_ (Publication 551), National Academy of Sciences—National Research Council, Washington, D. C. 20418, 1957, 137 pp., $2.00.

_Oceanography: A Study of Inner Space_, Warren E. Yasso, Holt Rinehart and Winston, Inc., New York, 10017, 1965, 176 pp., $2.50 (hardback); $1.28 (paperback).

Booklets

_Oceanography Information Sources_ (Publication 1417), National Academy of Sciences—National Research Council, Washington, D. C. 20418, 1966, 38 pp., $1.50.

_A Reader’s Guide to Oceanography_, Jan Hahn, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, Massachusetts 02543, August 1965 (revised periodically) 13 pp., free.

The following booklets are available from the Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 20402:

_Undersea Vehicles for Oceanography_ (Pamphlet No. 18), Inter-agency Committee on Oceanography of the Federal Council for Science and Technology, 1965, 81 pp., $0.65.

_Marine Sciences Research_, AEC Division of Biology and Medicine, March 1966, 18 pp., $0.15.

Articles

Tools for the Ocean Depths, _Fortune_, LXXII: 213 (August 1965).

Journey to Inner Space, _Time_, 86: 90 (September 17, 1965).

Working for Weeks on the Sea Floor, Jacques-Yves Cousteau, _National Geographic_, 129: 498 (April 1966).

_Nucleonics_, 24 (June 1966). This special issue on the use of the atom undersea contains the following articles of interest:

Reactors: Key to Large Scale Underwater Operations, J. R. Wetch, 33.

Undersea Role for Isotopic Power, K. E. Buck, 38.

Radioisotopes in Oceanographic Research, R. A. Pedrick and G. B. Magin, Jr., 42.

Motion Pictures

_1000 Feet Deep for Science_, 27 minutes, color, 1965. Produced by and available from Westinghouse Electric Corporation, Visual Communications Department, 3 Gateway Center, Box 2278, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15230. This film describes the Westinghouse Diving Saucer, which is a two-man laboratory used for underwater research. This is the saucer that is used by Jacques-Yves Cousteau and was featured in his motion picture _World Without Sun_.

Available for loan without charge from the AEC Headquarters Film Library, Division of Public Information, U. S. Atomic Energy Commission, Washington, D. C. 20545 and from other AEC film libraries.

_Bikini Radiological Laboratory_, 22 minutes, sound, color, 1949. Produced by the University of Washington and the AEC. This film explains studies of effects of radioactivity from the 1946 atomic tests at Bikini Atoll on plants and marine life in the area 3 years later.