PART ONE

WHEN BOOKS WERE WRITTEN

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The printer and typography—Definitions and derivations of trade words— Printing with separate types practiced between 1450–1455—Books previously written by hand or printed from wood—The Middle and Dark Ages—Latin in written books kept knowledge alive—Meaning of “manuscript”—Writing materials—Arrow-shaped writing of the Chaldeans— Papyrus rolls of the Egyptians—Ink, paper and block-printing supposedly invented by the Chinese—Dressed skins and palm leaves used by Hindoos— The Hebrews wrote upon stones and animal skins—We owe the present Roman alphabet to the Phœnicians—The word “alphabet” derived from the first two letters of the Greek alphabet, Alpha and Beta—The bards of Greece— Manuscripts written by slaves—Papyrus imported from Egypt—Development of parchment, and what it is—The great Alexandrian library—Length of rolls— Story of “Septuagint”—Destruction of the Alexandrian library—Rome supersedes Alexandria as an intellectual center—Cæsar credited as the founder of the first newspaper—“Short-hand” writing—The period of Emperor Augustus a memorable one in literature—Producing large editions of manuscript rolls—Books were plentiful and cheap—Elaborate parchment rolls—Origin of flat-sheet books—Hinged waxed tablets—Destruction of the library at Constantinople—Drift of literature toward the East— Transcribing and decorating holy writings in the monasteries of Europe— Monopoly of learning gave power to Church of Rome—Since the seventh century monastery manuscripts in Latin, the official language of that church—Translation of Bible into “Vulgar tongue” forbidden—William Tyndale’s English translation—Martin Luther’s German translation—Making of manuscript books in the Middle Ages—St. Benedict sets the monks to work copying manuscripts—Popularity of cloisters—The scriptorium and the rules governing scribe or copyist—Tools and materials—Rubrics— Illuminating—The copyist at work—A beautiful Irish book—Illuminators’ colors and binding of manuscript books—Missal, Psalter, Book of Hours— Donatus, books associated with the Middle Ages—First types were imitations of current Gothic lettering—Types cut in style of Roman lettering—Ancient Roman writing all capitals—Evolution of Roman capitals into small or lower-case letters—The uncial and half-uncial—Minuscule and majuscule—Development of writing toward both heavy pointed Gothic and the Roman style used by Nicholas Jenson—Cursive, a “script” letter.

THE ORIGIN OF TYPOGRAPHY

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The invention of typography marked the beginning of a new civilization— The beginning and end of the Middle Ages—Printing with separate metal types an evolution—Demand for playing cards and sacred pictures—Engraved wood blocks—Block books, and method of printing them—Coloring cards and pictures by means of stencils—The oldest dated specimen of printing—The first block books probably Latin grammars—The “Art of Dying,” the “Bible of the Poor,” and the “Mirror of Human Salvation”—When, where and by whom was typography invented?—The inventor failed to print his name on his product—Almost every European country claimed the honor—All claims disproved excepting those of Germany and Holland—Weight of evidence is with Germany—Typography was practiced by Gutenberg at Mainz some time during 1450–1455—Claims of priority for Coster of Haarlem—Story of the invention by Ulrich Zell the earliest testimony on the subject—Dierick Coornhert’s version—The unfaithful servant—Dignified gray heads point out the house of “the first printer”—Hadrian Junius and his “Coster Legend”—Fashioning the bark of a beech tree in the form of letters— Changing the letters to lead and then to tin—Old wine flagons melted into type—A workman, John Faust, steals the type-making instruments— Cornelis, an old book binder—The story dissected—Peter Scriverius has another version—A clap of thunder—Confusion of dates—A statue erected to Coster in Haarlem—“True and rational account” by one Leiz—Gerard Meerman’s story—The sheriff who printed with wooden types—Robbed by a brother of Johann Gutenberg—Jacob Koning awarded a prize for his essay on the invention—Makes researches in Haarlem archives—Corroborates some details in preceding stories—For many years Coster given equal honor with Gutenberg—Investigations by Dr. Anton Van der Linde—Forgeries and misrepresentations revealed—Haarlem practically surrenders its claim and alters its school books—Records of Louwerijs Janszoon and Laurens Janszoon Coster—Van der Linde goes to Germany, alters his name and writes a book—Hessels translates the book into English, and afterward becomes a Haarlem advocate—Coster proofs are weak—Haarlem claimants unable to agree as to Coster’s identity—Gutenberg a tangible human being, and probable inventor of the art—Parentage of Gutenberg—The family removes from Mainz presumably to Strassburg—Was the new art practiced at Strassburg?—Records of a lawsuit—Gutenberg agreed to teach Andrew Dritzehen certain trade secrets—Fust lends money to Gutenberg and takes a mortgage on his printing office—Fust seizes all types, presses and books—Records of this suit evidence of Gutenberg’s invention—The famous Forty-two Line Bible—Gutenberg again establishes himself as a printer—An appointment from the Bishop of Mainz—Dies about 1468—H. Noel Humphrey’s tribute—Peter Schœffer—Copies books at the University of Paris—Becomes Gutenberg’s assistant—Assumes charge after his master’s death—Marries Fust’s daughter—The new firm publishes a Psalter—First book with a printed date—Features of the book.

THE SPREAD OF TYPOGRAPHY

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The city of Mainz—A conflict between two archbishops—The city is set afire—Fust and Schœffer’s printing office burned—The workmen flee to various parts of Europe—A table of the spread of typography from Mainz— In Germany—John Mentel at Strassburg—Albrecht Pfister at Bamberg—Ulrich Zell at Cologne never printed a book in the German language—Arnold Ter Hoorne first to use Arabic numerals—Gunther Zainer at Augsburg first in Germany to print with Roman characters—Heinrich Keffer at Nuremberg—John Sensenschmidt at Nuremberg and Bamberg—The Bamberg Missal—Anthony Koburger at Nuremberg had twenty-four presses in operation—In Italy— First type printing done in the monastery at Subiaco—Conrad Schweinheim and Arnold Pannartz brought from Germany—Ulrich Hahn first printer in city of Rome proper—John de Spira first typographer at Venice and had exclusive right—Nicholas Jenson comes to Venice and uses a new Roman type-face—Story of his introduction to the art—The first page of displayed type composition—J, U and W not in books printed by Jenson—His office passes to Aldus Manutius—Italic introduced—Aldus reduces the size of books and suggests the printing of a polyglot Bible—Works of Peter Paul Porrus and Augustin Justinian—Aldus assisted by scholar-refugees from Constantinople—His complete name—Venetian printing offices and their product—Bernardo Cennini at Florence—Johann Numeister at Foligno— In Switzerland—Bertold Ruppel at Basel—This city gave France its first typographers—John Froben at Basel—Erasmus has him print his books—In France—Ulrich Gering, Martin Crantz and Michel Friburger at Paris—Gering becomes rich—Sectional wood border on book printed by Philip Pigouchet for Simon Vostre—Henry Estienne at Paris—First of illustrious family of typographers—Robert Estienne best known and most scholarly—Flees to Geneva, Switzerland, for safety—Dies there after a labor of love—In the Netherlands—A press erected at Utrecht—Colard Mansion and William Caxton at Bruges produce the first book printed in English—Van der Goes at Antwerp—Christopher Plantin at Antwerp gave renown to that city—His printing office now a museum—A polyglot Bible his greatest work—Louis Elzevir, founder of a family of learned printers, at Leyden—The second Louis Elzevir at Amsterdam—Johannes Andriesson at Haarlem—In England— William Caxton the first to set type in that country—Apprenticed to a merchant and goes to Bruges—Becomes Governor—Enters the service of the Duchess of Burgundy—Translates a “Historie of Troye” and learns how to print it—Returns to England and sets up a press at Westminster Abbey— Peculiarities of Caxton’s work—Wynken de Worde succeeds to Caxton’s business—Introduced the Roman letter into England—Richard Pynson at London—Richard Grafton as a printer of English Bibles translated by William Tyndale and Miles Coverdale—Tyndale suffers death—Grafton imprisoned for printing the “Great Bible”—Edward Whitechurch his partner—John Daye also imprisoned—Fox’s “Acts and Monuments”—In Scotland—Androw Myllar and Walter Chepman at Edinburgh—In Ireland— Humphrey Powell at Dublin—In North America—John Cromberger at Mexico City—In the United States—Stephen Daye at Cambridge, Mass.

TYPOGRAPHY IN COLONIAL DAYS

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Martyrs in typographic history—Ecclesiastical and political conditions in Europe from the sixteenth to eighteenth centuries—A book of treaties on the intended marriage of Queen Elizabeth—Oliver Cromwell encourages printing and literature—First edition of Milton’s “Paradise Lost”—Thomas Roycroft prints Brian Walton’s Polyglot Bible—The first book published in England by subscription—Paper for the work allowed to come in duty free—Cardinal Mazarin discovers a copy of Gutenberg’s Forty-two Line Bible—Chap-books and something about them—Poor representatives of the art of typography—Woodcuts and type battered and worn—Peddled by chapmen—Dicey books—Broadsides—Puritans land at Charlestown and begin to settle Cambridge and Boston—Rev. Jesse Glover solicits money for press and types—Contracts with Stephen Daye to come to new country—Rev. Glover dies—Daye reaches Cambridge with outfit—Begins printing in 1639—The first work—The first book—Poorly printed—President Dunster of Harvard College appoints Samuel Green to succeed Daye—Another press and types added—An inventory—The printing office discontinued—Printing in the colonies of Massachusetts and Virginia—Pennsylvania second English colony to have typography—William Bradford prints an almanac—Bradford arrested in Philadelphia for printing an address—Type pages as evidence— “Pied” by a juryman—Bradford goes to New York—First printshop there— Official printer—Publishes the first New York newspaper—Benjamin Franklin—Indentured to his brother James—The New England “Courant”—James is imprisoned—Benjamin becomes the publisher—The brothers disagree— Benjamin ships to New York—Meets William Bradford and goes to Philadelphia—Secures employment with Samuel Keimer—Leaves for England to buy printing equipment—Goes to work in London—Returns to Philadelphia and starts a printing office—One of the first jobs—Publishes “Poor Richard’s Almanack”—Proverbs widely quoted—Sells his shop to David Hall— Quaintness of Colonial typography—Comments on reproductions—Page from a Caslon specimen book of 1764—The work of Bodoni.

TYPOGRAPHY IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

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William Morris’s declaration—The first printed book a testimony to genius—The first cylinder press and first linotype were crudely constructed—Typography at its highest point—Italian and German styles contrasted—These styles blended into the Colonial—Franklin as a typographer compared to Aldus and Plantin—Beginning of the nineteenth century—Utility and art—William Nicholson plans a cylinder press—Dr. Kinsley constructs a model—A new roman type-face designed—Ornaments and borders discarded—Style of typography becoming uninteresting—Transition illustrated by four title-pages—Charles Whittingham and William Pickering—Artistic qualities introduced—Punches of Caslon Oldstyle recovered—A page in Colonial style—Punctuation marks omitted—Fifty years ahead of their time—Job printing of modern development—Newspaper, book and job work—Typography should be based upon art foundations—A Book of Common Prayer—Title-pages without ornamentation—Job printers take to fancy typography—Imitations of copperplate engravers’ work—A business card and a bill of fare—Changing styles applied to commercial headings— MacKellar, Smiths & Jordan—A card with apologies—A longing for pictures, color and decoration—Brass rule and tint blocks—Remarkable skill exhibited—The “Modern Renaissance”—Machinery led typography away from art—Printers thought they were doing artistic work—Inspiration wrongly interpreted—Forming of a curious chain of events—The Kelmscott Press— William Morris, artist, poet, designer and craftsman—Franklin and the Franklin stove—Morris and the Morris chair—The influence of Morris on house furnishing and typography—His home—Learned to print and to make paper—Designs type-faces—“Golden”—“Troy”—Draws decorative initials and borders—Additional designs by Burne-Jones—Morris criticised— Revolutionizes typography—Aubrey Beardsley—Will Bradley—A country printer—Studies art in Chicago—The “Wayside Press”—“Bradley: His Book”— Inspired by both past and present—A new typography—Combines with the University Press—Becomes an interesting subject for discussion—An opinion by George French—Attempts another new style of typography— Profuse ornamentation—Works rapidly—Bradley and his clients—His personality—Influence upon the American style of typography—Other influences-Theodore L. De Vinne—Has a college degree—Apprentice in a country printshop—Job compositor with Francis Hart—Takes charge of the business—A writer on printing subjects—Exponent of the conservative and dignified in typography—Should be no conflict between the styles of Morris, De Vinne and Bradley—For different purposes—The compositor must decide—De Vinne a leader in perfecting modern methods—Designs a type-face—Persuades printers to group wording—Charles T. Jacobi—Has done much for typography in England—Responsibilities of the modern typographer—Underrating the value of history—All knowledge is valuable.

[_The chapters following are devoted to the consideration of typography as practiced in the twentieth century._]