Chapter 11

LABOR AND POLITICS

In a democracy it is possible for organized labor to extend its influence far beyond the confines of a mere trade policy. It can move the political mechanism directly in proportion to its capacity to enlist public opinion. It is not surprising, therefore, to find that labor is eager to take part in politics or that labor parties were early organized. They were, however, doomed to failure, for no workingman's party can succeed, except in isolated localities, without the coöperation of other social and political forces. Standing alone as a political entity, labor has met only rebuff and defeat at the hands of the American voter.

The earlier attempts at direct political action were local. In Philadelphia a workingman's party was organized in 1828 as a result of the disappointment of the Mechanics' Union at its failure to achieve its ambitions by strikes. At a public meeting it was resolved to support only such candidates for the legislature and city council as would pledge themselves to the interests of "the working classes." The city was organized, and a delegate convention was called which nominated a ticket of thirty candidates for city and county offices. But nineteen of these nominees were also on the Jackson ticket, and ten on the Adams ticket; and both of these parties used the legend "Working Man's Ticket," professing to favor a shorter working day. The isolated labor candidates received only from 229 to 539 votes, while the Jackson party vote ranged from 3800 to 7000 and the Adams party vote from 2500 to 3800. So that labor's first excursion into politics revealed the eagerness of the older parties to win the labor vote, and the futility of relying on a separate organization, except for propaganda purposes.

Preparatory to their next campaign, the workingmen organized political clubs in all the wards of Philadelphia. In 1829 they nominated thirty-two candidates for local offices, of whom nine received the endorsement of the Federalists and three that of the Democrats. The workingmen fared better in this election, polling nearly 2000 votes in the county and electing sixteen candidates. So encouraged were they by this success that they attempted to nominate a state ticket, but the dominant parties were too strong. In 1831 the workingmen's candidates, who were not endorsed by the older parties, received less than 400 votes in Philadelphia. After this year the party vanished.

New York also early had an illuminating experience in labor politics. In 1829 the workingmen of the city launched a political venture under the immediate leadership of an agitator by the name of Thomas Skidmore. Skidmore set forth his social panacea in a book whose elongated title betrays his secret: The Rights of Man to Property! Being a Proposition to Make it Equal among the Adults of the Present Generation; and to Provide for its Equal Transmission to Every Individual of Each Succeeding Generation, on Arriving at the Age of Maturity. The party manifesto began with the startling declaration that "all human society, our own as well as every other, is constructed radically wrong." The new party proposed to right this defect by an equal distribution of the land and by an elaborate system of public education. Associated with Skidmore were Robert Dale Owen and Frances Wright of the Free Enquirer, a paper advocating all sorts of extreme social and economic doctrines. It was not strange, therefore, that the new party was at once connected, in the public mind, with all the erratic vagaries of these Apostles of Change. It was called the "Fanny Wright ticket" and the "Infidel Ticket." Every one forgot that it aimed to be the workingman's ticket. The movement, however, was supported by The Working Man's Advocate, a new journal that soon reached a wide influence.

There now appeared an eccentric Quaker, Russell Comstock by name, to center public attention still more upon the new party. As a candidate for the legislature, he professed an alarmingly advanced position, for he believed that the State ought to establish free schools where handicrafts and morals, but not religion, should be taught; that husband and wife should be equals before the law; that a mechanics' lien and bankruptcy law should be passed; and that by wise graduations all laws for the collection of debts should be repealed. At a meeting held at the City Hall, for the further elucidation of his "pure Republicanism," he was greeted by a great throng but was arrested for disturbing the peace. He received less than one hundred and fifty votes, but his words went far to excite, on the one hand, the interest of the laboring classes in reform, and, on the other hand, the determination of the conservative classes to defeat "a ticket got up openly and avowedly," as one newspaper said, "in opposition to all banks, in opposition to social order, in opposition to rights of property."

Elections at this time lasted three days. On the first day there was genuine alarm at the large vote cast for "the Infidels." Thoughtful citizens were importuned to go to the polls, and on the second and third days they responded in sufficient numbers to compass the defeat of the entire ticket, excepting only one candidate for the legislature.

The Workingman's party contained too many zealots to hold together. After the election of 1829 a meeting was called to revise the party platform. The more conservative element prevailed and omitted the agrarian portions of the platform. Skidmore, who was present, attempted to protest, but his voice was drowned by the clamor of the audience. He then started a party of his own, which he called the Original Workingman's party but which became known as the Agrarian party. The majority endeavored to rectify their position in the community by an address to the people. "We take this opportunity," they said, "to aver, whatever may be said to the contrary by ignorant or designing individuals or biased presses, that we have no desire or intention of disturbing the rights of property in individuals or the public." In the meantime Robert Dale Owen and Fanny Wright organized a party of their own, endorsing an extreme form of state paternalism over children. This State Guardianship Plan, as it was called, aimed to "regenerate America in a generation" and to "make but one class out of the many that now envy and despise each other."

There were, then, three workingmen's parties in New York, none of which, however, succeeded in gaining an influential position in state politics. After 1830 all these parties disappeared, but not without leaving a legacy of valuable experience. The Working Man's Advocate discovered political wisdom when it confessed that "whether these measures are carried by the formation of a new party, by the reform of an old one, or by the abolishment of party altogether, is of comparative unimportance."

In New England, the workingmen's political endeavors were joined with those of the farmers under the agency of the New England Association of Farmers, Mechanics, and Workingmen. This organization was initiated in 1830 by the workingmen of Woodstock, Vermont, and their journal, the Working Man's Gazette, became a medium of agitation which affected all the New England manufacturing towns as well as many farming communities. "Woodstock meetings," as they were called, were held everywhere and aroused both workingmen and farmers to form a new political party. The Springfield Republican summarized the demands of the new party thus:

The avowed objects generally seem to be to abolish imprisonment for debt, the abolishment of litigation, and in lieu thereof the settlement of disputes by reference to neighbors; to establish some more equal and universal system of public education; to diminish the salaries and extravagance of public officers; to support no men for offices of public trust, but farmers, mechanics, and what the party call "working men"; and to elevate the character of this class by mental instruction and mental improvement. . . . Much is said against the wealth and aristocracy of the land, their influence, and the undue influence of lawyers and other professional men. . . . The most of these objects appear very well on paper and we believe they are already sustained by the good sense of the people. . . . What is most ridiculous about this party is, that in many places where the greatest noise is made about it, the most indolent and most worthless persons, men of no trade or useful occupation have taken the lead. We cannot of course answer for the character for industry of many places where this party is agitated: but we believe the great body of our own community, embracing every class and profession, may justly be called workingmen: nor do we believe enough can be found who are not such, to make even a decent party of drones.

In the early thirties many towns and cities in Massachusetts, Vermont, Maine, Connecticut, and Rhode Island elected workingmen's candidates to local offices, usually with the help of small tradespeople. In 1833 and 1834 the workingmen of Massachusetts put a state ticket in the field which polled about 2000 votes, and in Boston a workingman's party was organized, but it did not gather much momentum and soon disappeared.

These local and desultory attempts at forming a separate labor party failed as partisan movements. The labor leader proved an inefficient amateur when matched against the shrewd and experienced party manipulator; nor was there a sufficient class homogeneity to keep the labor vote together; and, even if it had so been united, there were not enough labor votes to make a majority. So the labor candidate had to rely on the good will of other classes in order to win his election. And this support was not forthcoming. Americans have, thus far, always looked with suspicion upon a party that represented primarily the interests of only one class. This tendency shows a healthy instinct founded upon the fundamental conception of society as a great unity whose life and progress depend upon the freedom of all its diverse parts.

It is not necessary to assume, as some observers have done, that these petty political excursions wrecked the labor movement of that day. It was perfectly natural that the laborer, when he awoke to the possibilities of organization and found himself possessed of unlimited political rights, should seek a speedy salvation in the ballot box. He took, by impulse, the partisan shortcut and soon found himself lost in the slough of party intrigue. On the other hand, it should not be concluded that these intermittent attempts to form labor parties were without political significance. The politician is usually blind to every need except the need of his party; and the one permanent need of his party is votes. A demand backed by reason will usually find him inert; a demand backed by votes galvanizes him into nervous attention. When, therefore, it was apparent that there was a labor vote, even though a small one, the demands of this vote were not to be ignored, especially in States where the parties were well balanced and the scale was tipped by a few hundred votes. Within a few decades after the political movement began, many States had passed lien laws, had taken active measures to establish efficient free schools, had abolished imprisonment for debt, had legislative inquiry into factory conditions, and had recognized the ten-hour day. These had been the leading demands of organized labor, and they had been brought home to the public conscience, in part at least, by the influence of the workingmen's votes.

It was not until after the Civil War that labor achieved sufficient national homogeneity to attempt seriously the formation of a national party. In the light of later events it is interesting to sketch briefly the development of the political power of the workingman. The National Labor Union at its congress of 1866 resolved "that, so far as political action is concerned, each locality should be governed by its own policy, whether to run an independent ticket of workingmen, or to use political parties already existing, but at all events to cast no vote except for men pledged to the interests of labor." The issue then seemed clear enough. But six years later the Labor Reform party struck out on an independent course and held its first and only national convention. Seventeen States were represented. ¹ The Labor party, however, had yet to learn how hardly won are independence and unity in any political organization. Rumors of pernicious intermeddling by the Democratic and Republican politicians were afloat, and it was charged that the Pennsylvania delegates had come on passes issued by the president of the Pennsylvania Railroad. Judge David Davis of Illinois, then a member of the United States Supreme Court, was nominated for President and Governor Joel Parker of New Jersey for Vice-President. Both declined, however, and Charles O'Conor of New York, the candidate of "the Straight-Out Democrats," was named for President, but no nomination was made for Vice-President. Considering the subsequent phenomenal growth of the labor vote, it is worth noting in passing that O'Conor received only 29,489 votes and that these embraced both the labor and the so-called "straight" Democratic strength.

¹ It is interesting to note that in this first National Labor Party Convention a motion favoring government ownership and the referendum was voted down.

For some years the political labor movement lost its independent character and was absorbed by the Greenback party which offered a meeting-ground for discontented farmers and restless workingmen. In 1876 the party nominated for President the venerable Peter Cooper, who received about eighty thousand votes--most of them probably cast by farmers. During this time the leaders of the labor movement were serving a political apprenticeship and were learning the value of coöperation. On February 22, 1878, a conference held at Toledo, Ohio, including eight hundred delegates from twenty-eight States, perfected an alliance between the Labor Reform and Greenback parties and invited all "patriotic citizens to unite in an effort to secure financial reform and industrial emancipation." Financial reform meant the adoption of the well-known greenback free silver policy. Industrial emancipation involved the enactment of an eight-hour law; the inspection of workshops, factories, and mines; the regulation of interstate commerce; a graduated federal income tax; the prohibition of the importation of alien contract labor; the forfeiture of the unused portion of the princely land grants to railroads; and the direct participation of the people in government. These fundamental issues were included in the demands of subsequent labor and populist parties, and some of them were bequeathed to the Progressive party of a later date. The convention was thus a forerunner of genuine reform, for its demands were based upon industrial needs. For the moment it made a wide popular appeal. In the state elections of 1878 about a million votes were polled by the party candidates. The bulk of these were farmers' votes cast in the Middle and Far West, though in the East, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, New York, Maine, and New Jersey cast a considerable vote for the party.

With high expectations the new party entered the campaign of 1880. It had over a dozen members in Congress, active organizations in nearly every State, and ten thousand local clubs. General James B. Weaver, the presidential nominee of the party, was the first candidate to make extensive campaign journeys into distant sections of the country. His energetic canvass netted him only 308,578 votes, most of which came from the West. The party was distinctly a farmers' party. In 1884, it nominated the lurid Ben Butler who had been, according to report, "ejected from the Democratic party and booted out of the Republican." His demagogic appeals, however, brought him not much more than half as many votes as the party received at the preceding election, and helped to end the political career of the Greenbackers.

With the power of the farmers on the wane, the balance began to shift. There now followed a number of attempts to organize labor in the Union Labor party, the United Labor party, the Progressive Labor party, the American Reform party, and the Tax Reformers. There were still numerous farmers' organizations such as the Farmers' Alliance, the Anti-Monopolists, the Homesteaders, and others, but they were no longer the dominant force. Under the stimulus of the labor unions, delegates representing the Knights of Labor, the Grangers, the Anti-Monopolists, and other farmers' organizations, met in Cincinnati on February 22, 1887, and organized the National Union Labor party. ¹ The following May the party held its only nominating convention. Alson J. Streeter of Illinois was named for President and Samuel Evans of Texas for Vice-President. The platform of the party was based upon the prevalent economic and political discontent. Farmers were overmortgaged, laborers were underpaid, and the poor were growing poorer, while the rich were daily growing richer. "The paramount issues," the new party declared, "are the abolition of usury, monopoly, and trusts, and we denounce the Republican and Democratic parties for creating and perpetuating these monstrous evils."

¹ McKee, National Conventions and Platforms, p. 251.

In the meantime Henry George, whose Progress and Poverty had made a profound impression upon public thought, had become in 1886 a candidate for mayor of New York City, and polled the phenomenal total of 68,110 votes, while Theodore Roosevelt, the Republican candidate, received 60,435, and Abram S. Hewitt, the successful Democratic candidate, polled 90,552. The evidence of popular support which attended Henry George's brief political career was the prelude to a national effort which culminated in the formation of the United Labor party. Its platform was similar to that of the Union party, except that the single tax now made its appearance. This method contemplated the "taxation of land according to its value and not according to its area, to devote to common use and benefit those values which arise, not from the exertion of the individual, but from the growth of society," and the abolition of all taxes on industry and its products. But it was apparent from the similarity of their platforms and the geographical distribution of their candidates that the two labor parties were competing for the same vote. At a conference held in Chicago to effect a union, however, the Union Labor party insisted on the complete effacement of the other ticket and the single taxers refused to submit. In the election which followed, the Union Labor party received about 147,000 votes, largely from the South and West and evidently the old Greenback vote, while the United party polled almost no votes outside of Illinois and New York. Neither party survived the result of this election.

In December, 1889, committees representing the Knights of Labor and the Farmers' Alliance met in St. Louis to come to some agreement on political policies. Owing to the single tax predilection of the Knights, the two organizations were unable to enter into a close union, but they nevertheless did agree that "the legislative committees of both organizations [would] act in concert before Congress for the purpose of securing the enactment of laws in harmony with their demands." This coöperation was a forerunner of the People's party or, as it was commonly called, the Populist party, the largest third party that had taken the field since the Civil War. Throughout the West and the South political conditions now were feverish. Old party majorities were overturned, and a new type of Congressman invaded Washington. When the first national convention of the People's party met in Omaha on July 2, 1892, the outlook was bright. General Weaver was nominated for President and James G. Field of Virginia for Vice-President. The platform rehabilitated Greenbackism in cogent phrases, demanded government control of railroads and telegraph and telephone systems, the reclamation of land held by corporations, an income tax, the free coinage of silver and gold "at the present legal ratio of sixteen to one," and postal savings banks. In a series of resolutions which were not a part of the platform but were nevertheless "expressive of the sentiment of this convention," the party declared itself in sympathy "with the efforts of organized workingmen to shorten the hours of labor"; it condemned "the fallacy of protecting American labor under the present system, which opens our ports to the pauper and criminal classes of the world and crowds out our wage-earners"; and it opposed the Pinkerton system of capitalistic espionage as "a menace to our liberties." The party formally declared itself to be a "union of the labor forces of the United States," for "the interests of rural and city labor are the same; their enemies identical."

These national movements prior to 1896 are not, however, an adequate index of the political strength of labor in partisan endeavor. Organized labor was more of a power in local and state elections, perhaps because in these cases its pressure was more direct, perhaps because it was unable to cope with the great national organization of the older parties. During these years of effort to gain a footing in the Federal Government, there are numerous examples of the success of the labor party in state elections. As early as 1872 the labor reformers nominated state tickets in Pennsylvania and Connecticut. In 1875 they nominated Wendell Phillips for Governor of Massachusetts. In 1878, in coalition with the Greenbackers, they elected many state officers throughout the West. Ten years later, when the Union Labor party was at its height, labor candidates were successful in several municipalities. In 1888 labor tickets were nominated in many Western States, including Colorado, Indiana, Kansas, Minnesota, Michigan, Missouri, Nebraska, Ohio, and Wisconsin. Of these Kansas cast the largest labor vote, with nearly 36,000, and Missouri came next with 15,400. In the East, however, the showing of the party in state elections was far less impressive.

In California the political labor movement achieved a singular prominence. In 1877 the labor situation in San Francisco became acute because of the prevalence of unemployment. Grumblings of dissatisfaction soon gave way to parades and informal meetings at which imported Chinese labor and the rich "nobs," the supposed dual cause of all the trouble, were denounced in lurid language. The agitation, however, was formless until the necessary leader appeared in Dennis Kearney, a native of Cork County, Ireland. For fourteen years he had been a sailor, had risen rapidly to first officer of a clipper ship, and then had settled in San Francisco as a drayman. He was temperate and industrious in his personal life, and possessed a clear eye, a penetrating voice, the vocabulary of one versed in the crude socialistic pamphlets of his day, and, in spite of certain domineering habits bred in the sailor, the winning graces of his nationality.

Kearney appeared at meetings on the vacant lots known as the "sand lots," in front of the City Hall of San Francisco, and advised the discontented ones to "wrest the government from the hands of the rich and place it in those of the people." On September 12, 1877, he rallied a group of unemployed around him and organized the Workingman's Trade and Labor Union of San Francisco. On the 5th of October, at a great public meeting, the Workingman's party of California was formed and Kearney was elected president. The platform adopted by the party proposed to place the government in the hands of the people, to get rid of the Chinese, to destroy the money power, to "provide decently for the poor and unfortunate, the weak and the helpless," and "to elect none but competent workingmen and their friends to any office whatever. . . . When we have 10,000 members we shall have the sympathy and support of 20,000 other workingmen. This party," concluded the pronouncement, "will exhaust all peaceable means of attaining its ends, but it will not be denied justice, when it has the power to enforce it. It will encourage no riot or outrage, but it will not volunteer to repress or put down or arrest or prosecute the hungry and impatient, who manifest their hatred of the Chinamen by a crusade against 'John,' or those who employ him. Let those who raise the storm by their selfishness, suppress it themselves. If they dare raise the devil, let them meet him face to face. We will not help them."

In advocating these views, Kearney held meeting after meeting, each rhetorically more violent than the last, until on the 3d of November he was arrested. This martyrdom in the cause of labor increased his power, and when he was released he was drawn by his followers in triumph through the streets on one of his own drays. His language became more and more extreme. He bludgeoned the "thieving politicians" and the "bloodsucking capitalists," and he advocated "judicious hanging" and "discretionary shooting." The City Council passed an ordinance intended to gag him; the legislature enacted an extremely harsh riot act; a body of volunteers patrolled the streets of the city; a committee of safety was organized. On January 5, 1878, Kearney and a number of associates were indicted, arrested, and released on bail. When the trial jury acquitted Kearney, what may be called the terrorism of the movement attained its height, but it fortunately spent itself in violent adjectives.

The Workingman's party, however, elected a workingman mayor of San Francisco, joined forces with the Grangers, and elected a majority of the members of the state constitutional convention which met in Sacramento on September 28, 1878. This was a notable triumph for a third party. The framing of a new constitution gave this coalition of farmers and workingmen an unusual opportunity to assail the evils which they declared infested the State. The instrument which they drafted bound the state legislature with numerous restrictions and made lobbying a felony; it reorganized the courts, placed innumerable limitations upon corporations, forbade the loaning of the credit or property of the State to corporations, and placed a state commission in charge of the railroads, which had been perniciously active in state politics. Alas for these visions of reform! A few years after the adoption of this new constitution by California, Hubert H. Bancroft wrote:

Those objects which it particularly aimed at, it failed to achieve. The effect upon corporations disappointed its authors and supporters. Many of them were strong enough still to defy state power and evade state laws, in protecting their interests, and this they did without scruple. The relation of capital and labor is even more strained than before the constitution was adopted. Capital soon recovered from a temporary intimidation . . . Labor still uneasy was still subject to the inexorable law of supply and demand. Legislatures were still to be approached by agents . . . Chinese were still employed in digging and grading. The state board of railroad Commissioners was a useless expense, . . . being as wax in the hands of the companies it was set to watch. ¹

¹ Works (vol. XXIV): History of California, vol. VII, p. 404.

After the collapse of the Populist party, there is to be discerned in labor politics a new departure, due primarily to the attitude of the American Federation of Labor in partisan matters, and secondarily to the rise of political socialism. A socialistic party deriving its support almost wholly from foreign-born workmen had appeared in a few of the large cities in 1877, but it was not until 1892 that a national party was organized, and not until after the collapse of Populism that it assumed some political importance.

In August, 1892, a Socialist-Labor convention which was held in New York City nominated candidates for President and Vice-President and adopted a platform that contained, besides the familiar economic demands of socialism, the rather unusual suggestion that the Presidency, Vice-Presidency, and Senate of the United States be abolished and that an executive board be established "whose members are to be elected, and may at any time be recalled, by the House of Representatives, as the only legislative body, the States and municipalities to adopt corresponding amendments to their constitutions and statutes." Under the title of the Socialist-Labor party, this ticket polled 21,532 votes in 1892, and in 1896, 36,373 votes.

In 1897 the inevitable split occurred in the Socialist ranks. Eugene V. Debs, the radical labor leader, who, as president of the American Railway Union, had directed the Pullman strike and had become a martyr to the radical cause through his imprisonment for violating the orders of a Federal Court, organized the Social-Democratic party. In 1900 Debs was nominated for President, and Job Harriman, representing the older wing, for Vice-President. The ticket polled 94,864 votes. The Socialist-Labor party nominated a ticket of their own which received only 33,432 votes. Eventually this party shrank to a mere remnant, while the Social Democratic party became generally known as the Socialist party. Debs became their candidate in three successive elections. In 1904 and 1908 his vote hovered around 400,000. In 1910 congressional and local elections spurred the Socialists to hope for a million votes in 1912 but they fell somewhat short of this mark. Debs received 901,873 votes, the largest number which a Socialist candidate has ever yet received. Benson, the presidential candidate in 1916, received 590,579 votes. ¹

¹ The Socialist vote is stated differently by McKee, National Conventions and Platforms. The above figures, to 1912, are taken from Stanwood's History of the Presidency, and for 1912 and 1916 from the World Almanac.

In the meantime, the influence of the Socialist labor vote in particular localities vastly increased. In 1910 Milwaukee elected a Socialist mayor by a plurality of seven thousand, sent Victor Berger to Washington as the first Socialist Congressman, and elected labor-union members as five of the twelve Socialist councilmen, thus revealing the sympathy of the working class for the cause. On January 1, 1912, over three hundred towns and cities had one or more Socialist officers. The estimated Socialist vote of these localities was 1,500,000. The 1039 Socialist officers included 56 mayors, 205 aldermen and councilmen, and 148 school officers. This was not a sectional vote but represented New England and the far West, the oldest commonwealths and the newest, the North and the South, and cities filled with foreign workingmen as well as staid towns controlled by retired farmers and shopkeepers.

When the United States entered the Great War, the Socialist party became a reservoir for all the unsavory disloyalties loosened by the shock of the great conflict. Pacifists and pro-Germans found a common refuge under its red banner. In the New York mayoralty elections in 1917 these Socialists cast nearly one-fourth of the votes, and in the Wisconsin senatorial election in 1918 Victor Berger, their standard-bearer, swept Milwaukee, carried seven counties, and polled over one hundred thousand votes. On the other hand, a large number of American Socialists, under the leadership of William English Walling and John Spargo, vigorously espoused the national cause and subordinated their economic and political theories to their loyalty.

The Socialists have repeatedly attempted to make official inroads upon organized labor. They have the sympathy of the I. W. W., the remnant of the Knights of Labor, and the more radical trades unions, but from the American Federation of Labor they have met only rebuff. A number of state federations, especially in the Middle West, not a few city centrals, and some sixteen national unions, have officially approved of the Socialist programme, but the Federation has consistently refused such an endorsement.

The political tactics assumed by the Federation discountenance a distinct labor party movement, as long as the old parties are willing to subserve the ends of the unions. This self-restraint does not mean that the Federation is not "in politics." On the contrary, it is constantly vigilant and aggressive and it engages every year in political maneuvers without, however, having a partisan organization of its own. At its annual conventions it has time and again urged local and state branches to scrutinize the records of legislative candidates and to see that only friends of union labor receive the union laborer's ballot. In 1897 it "firmly and unequivocally" favored "the independent use of the ballot by trade unionists and workmen united regardless of party, that we may elect men from our own ranks to write new laws and administer them along lines laid down in the legislative demands of the American Federation of Labor and at the same time secure an impartial judiciary that will not govern us by arbitrary injunctions of the courts, nor act as the pliant tool of corporate wealth." And in 1906 it determined, first, to defeat all candidates who are either hostile or indifferent to labor's demands; second, if neither party names such candidates, then to make independent labor nominations; third, in every instance to support "the men who have shown themselves to be friendly to labor."

With great astuteness, perseverance, and alertness, the Federation has pursued this method to its uttermost possibilities. In Washington it has met with singular success, reaching a high-water mark in the first Wilson Administration, with the passage of the Clayton bill and the eight-hour railroad bill. After this action, a great New York daily lamented that "Congress is a subordinate branch of the American Federation of Labor . . . The unsleeping watchmen of organized labor know how intrepid most Congressmen are when threatened with the 'labor vote.' The American laborites don't have to send men to Congress as their British brethren do to the House of Commons. From the galleries they watch the proceedings. They are mighty in committee rooms. They reason with the recalcitrant. They fight opponents in their Congress districts. There are no abler or more potent politicians than the labor leaders out of Congress. Why should rulers like Mr. Gompers and Mr. Furuseth ¹ go to Congress? They are a Super-Congress."

¹ Andrew Furuseth, the president of the Seamen's Union and reputed author of the Seaman's Act of 1915.

Many Congressmen have felt the retaliatory power of the Federation. Even such powerful leaders as Congressman Littlefield of Maine and Speaker Cannon were compelled to exert their utmost to overcome union opposition. The Federation has been active in seating union men in Congress. In 1908 there were six union members in the House; in 1910 there were ten; in 1912 there were seventeen. The Secretary of Labor himself holds a union card. Nor has the Federation shrunk from active participation in the presidential lists. It bitterly opposed President Roosevelt when he espoused the open shop in the Government Printing Office; and in 1908 it openly espoused the Democratic ticket.

In thus maintaining a sort of grand partisan neutrality, the Federation not only holds in numerous instances the balance of power but it makes party fealty its slave and avoids the costly luxury of maintaining a separate national organization of its own. The all-seeing lobby which it maintains at Washington is a prototype of what one may discern in most state capitals when the legislature is in session. The legislative programmes adopted by the various state labor bodies are metamorphosed into demands, and well organized committees are present to coöperate with the labor members who sit in the legislature. The unions, through their steering committee, select with caution the members who are to introduce the labor bills and watch paternally over every stage in the progress of a measure.

Most of this legislative output has been strictly protective of union interests. Labor, like all other interests that aim to use the power of government, has not been wholly altruistic in its motives, especially since in recent years it has found itself matched against such powerful organizations of employers as the Manufacturers' Association, the National Erectors' Association, and the Metal Trades Association. In fact, in nearly every important industry the employers have organized for defensive and offensive purposes. These organizations match committee with committee, lobby with lobby, add espionage to open warfare, and issue effective literature in behalf of their open shop propaganda.

The voluminous labor codes of such great manufacturing communities as Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania, and Illinois, reflect a new and enlarged conception of the modern State. Labor has generally favored measures that extend the inquisitional and regulative functions of the State, excepting where this extension seemed to interfere with the autonomy of labor itself. Workshops, mines, factories, and other places of employment are now minutely inspected, and innumerable sanitary and safety provisions are enforced. A workman's compensation law removes from the employee's mind his anxiety for the fate of his family if he should be disabled. The labor contract, long extolled as the ægis of economic liberty, is no longer free from state vigilance. The time and method of paying wages are ordered by the State, and in certain industries the hours of labor are fixed by law. Women and children are the special protégés of this new State, and great care is taken that they shall be engaged only in employment suitable to their strength and under an environment that will not ruin their health.

The growing social control of the individual is significant, for it is not only the immediate conditions of labor that have come under public surveillance. Where and how the workman lives is no longer a matter of indifference to the public, nor what sort of schooling his children get, what games they play, and what motion pictures they see. The city, in coöperation with the State, now provides nurses, dentists, oculists, and surgeons, as well as teachers for the children. This local paternalism increases yearly in its solicitude and receives the eager sanction of the labor members of city councils. The State has also set up elaborate machinery for observing all phases of the labor situation and for gathering statistics and other information that should be helpful in framing labor laws, and has also established state employment agencies and boards of conciliation and arbitration.

This machinery of mediation is significant not because of what it has already accomplished but as evidence of the realization on the part of the State that labor disputes are not merely the concern of the two parties to the labor contract. Society has finally come to realize that, in the complex of the modern State, it also is vitally concerned, and, in despair at thousands of strikes every year, with their wastage and their aftermath of bitterness, it has attempted to interpose its good offices as mediator.

The modern labor laws cannot be credited, however, to labor activity alone. The new social atmosphere has provided a congenial milieu for this vast extension of state functions. The philanthropist, the statistician, and the sociologist have become potent allies of the labor-legislator; and such non-labor organizations, as the American Association for Labor Legislation, have added their momentum to the movement. New ideals of social coöperation have been established, and new conceptions of the responsibilities of private ownership have been evolved.

While labor organizations have succeeded rather readily in bending the legislative power to their wishes, the military arm of the executive and the judiciary which ultimately enforce the command of the State have been beyond their reach. To bend these branches of the government to its will, organized labor has fought a persistent and aggressive warfare. Decisions of the courts which do not sustain union contentions are received with great disfavor. The open shop decisions of the United States Supreme Court are characterized as unfair and partisan and are vigorously opposed in all the labor journals. It is not, however, until the sanction of public opinion eventually backs the attitude of the unions that the laws and their interpretation can conform entirely to the desires of labor.

The chief grievance of organized labor against the courts is their use of the injunction to prevent boycotts and strikes. "Government by injunction" is the complaint of the unions and it is based upon the common, even reckless, use of a writ which was in origin and intent a high and rarely used prerogative of the Court of Chancery. What was in early times a powerful weapon in the hands of the Crown against riotous assemblies and threatened lawlessness was invoked in 1868 by an English court as a remedy against industrial disturbances. ¹ Since the Civil War the American courts in rapidly increasing numbers have used this weapon, and the Damascus blade of equity has been transformed into a bludgeon in the hands even of magistrates of inferior courts.

¹ Springfield Spinning Company vs. Riley, L. R. 6 Eq. 551.

The prime objection which labor urges against this use of the injunction is that it deprives the defendant of a jury trial when his liberty is at stake. The unions have always insisted that the law should be so modified that this right would accompany all injunctions growing out of labor disputes. Such a denatured injunction, however, would defeat the purpose of the writ; but the union leader maintains, on the other hand, that he is placed unfairly at a disadvantage, when an employer can command for his own aid in an industrial dispute the swift and sure arm of a law originally intended for a very different purpose. The imprisonment of Debs during the Pullman strike for disobeying a Federal injunction brought the issue vividly before the public; and the sentencing of Gompers, Mitchell, and Morrison to prison terms for violating the Buck's Stove injunction produced new waves of popular protest. Occasional dissenting opinions by judges and the gradual conviction of lawyers and of society that some other tribunal than a court of equity or even a court of law would be more suitable for the settling of labor disputes is indicative of the change ultimately to be wrought in practice.

The unions are also violently opposed to the use of military power by the State during strikes. Not only can the militia be called out to enforce the mandates of the State but whenever Federal interference is justified the United States troops may be sent to the scene of turmoil. After the period of great labor troubles culminating in the Pullman strike, many States reorganized their militia into national guards. The armories built for the accommodation of the guard were called by the unions "plutocracy's bastiles," and the mounted State constabulary organized in 1906 by Pennsylvania were at once dubbed "American Cossacks." Several States following the example of Pennsylvania have encountered the bitterest hostility on the part of the labor unions. Already opposition to the militia has proceeded so far that some unions have forbidden their members to perform militia service when called to do strike duty, and the military readjustments involved in the Great War have profoundly affected the relation of the State to organized labor. Following the signing of the armistice, a movement for the organization of an American Labor party patterned after the British Labour party gained rapid momentum, especially in New York and Chicago. A platform of fourteen points was formulated at a general conference of the leaders, and provisional organizations were perfected in a number of cities. What power this latest attempt to enlist labor in partisan politics will assume is problematical. It is obviously inspired by European experiences and promulgated by socialistic propaganda. It has not succeeded in invading the American Federation of Labor, which did not formally endorse the movement at its Annual Convention in 1919. Gompers, in an intimate and moving speech, told a group of labor leaders gathered in New York on December 9, 1918, that "the organization of a political party would simply mean the dividing of the activities and allegiance of the men and women of labor between two bodies, such as would often come in conflict." Under present conditions, it would appear that no Labor party could succeed in the United States without the coöperation of the American Federation of Labor.

The relation between the American Federation of Labor and the socialistic and political labor movements, as well as the monopolistic eagerness of the socialists to absorb these activities, is clearly indicated in Gompers's narrative of his experiences as an American labor representative at the London Conference of 1918. The following paragraphs are significant:

When the Inter-Allied Labor Conference opened in London, on September 17th, early in the morning, there were sent over to my room at the hotel cards which were intended to be the credential cards for our delegation to sign and hand in as our credentials. The card read something like this: "The undersigned is a duly accredited delegate to the Inter-Allied Socialist Conference to be held at London," etc., and giving the dates.

I refused to sign my name, or permit my name to be put upon any card of that character. My associates were as indignant as I was and refused to sign any such credential. We went to the hall where the conference was to be held. There was a young lady at the door. When we made an effort to enter she asked for our cards. We said we had no cards to present. "Well," the answer came, "you cannot be admitted." We replied, "That may be true--we cannot be admitted--but we will not sign any such card. We have our credentials written out, signed, and sealed and will present them to any committee of the conference for scrutiny and recommendation, but we are not going to sign such a card."

Mr. Charles Bowerman, Secretary of the Parliamentary Committee of the British Trade Union Congress, at that moment emerged from the door. He asked why we had not entered. I told him the situation, and he persuaded the young lady to permit us to pass in. We entered the hall and presented our credentials. Mr. James Sexton, officer and representative of the Docker's Union of Liverpool, arose and called the attention of the Conference to this situation, and declared that the American Federation of Labor delegates refused to sign any such document. He said it was not an Inter-Allied Socialist Conference, but an Inter-Allied Socialist and Labor Conference.

Mr. Arthur Henderson, of the Labor Party, made an explanation something to this effect, if my memory serves me: "It is really regrettable that such an error should have been made. It was due to the fact that the old card of credentials which has been used in former conferences was sent to the printer, no one paying any attention to it, thinking it was all right."

I want to call your attention to the significance of that explanation, that is, that the trade union movement of Great Britain was represented at these former conferences, but at this conference the importance of Labor was regarded as so insignificant that everybody took it for granted that it was perfectly all right to have the credential card read "Inter-Allied Socialist Conference" and with the omission of this more important term, "Labor." ¹

¹ American Federationist, January, 1919, pp. 40-41.

As one looks back upon the history of the workingman, one finds something impressive, even majestic, in the rise of the fourth estate from a humble place to one of power in this democratic nation. In this rise of fortune the laborer's union has unquestionably been a moving force, perhaps even the leading cause. At least this homogeneous mass of workingmen, guided by self-developed leadership, has aroused society to safeguard more carefully the individual needs of all its parts. Labor has awakened the state to a sense of responsibility for its great sins of neglect and has made it conscious of its social duties. Labor, like other elements of society, has often been selfish, narrow, vindictive; but it has also shown itself earnest and constructive. The conservative trades union, at the hour of this writing, stands as a bulwark between that amorphous, inefficient, irresponsible Socialism which has made Russia a lurid warning and Prussia a word of scorn, and that rational social ideal which is founded upon the conviction that society is ultimately an organic spiritual unity, the blending of a thousand diverse interests whose justly combined labors and harmonized talents create civilization and develop culture.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE

While there is a vast amount of writing on the labor problem, there are very few works on the history of labor organizations in the United States. The main reliance for the earlier period, in the foregoing pages, has been the Documentary History of American Industrial Society, edited by John R. Commons, 10 vols. (1910). The History of Labour in the United States, 2 vols. (1918), which he published with associates, is the most convenient and complete compilation that has yet appeared and contains a large mass of historical material on the labor question.

The following works are devoted to discussions of various phases of the history of American labor and industry:

T. S. Adams and Helen L. Sumner, Labor Problems (1905). Contains several refreshing chapters on labor organizations.

F. T. Carlton, The History and Problem of Organized Labor (1911). A succinct discussion of union problems.

R. T. Ely, The Labor Movement in America (1886). Though one of the earliest American works on the subject, it remains indispensable.

G. G. Groat, An Introduction to the Study of Organized Labor in America (1916). A useful and up-to-date compendium.

R. F. Hoxie, Trade Unionism in the United States (1917). A suggestive study of the philosophy of unionism.

J. R. Commons (Ed.), Trade Unionism and Labor Problems (1905).

J. H. Hollander and G. E. Barnett (Eds.), Studies in American Trade Unionism (1905). These two volumes are collections of contemporary studies of many phases of organized labor by numerous scholars. They are not historical.

The Report of the Industrial Commission, vol. XVII (1901) provides the most complete analysis of trade-union policies and also contains valuable historical summaries of many unions.

G. E. McNeill (Ed.), The Labor Movement: the Problem of Today (1892). This collection contains historical sketches of the organizations of the greater labor groups and of the development of the more important issues espoused by them. For many years it was the most comprehensive historical work on American unionism, and it remains a necessary source of information to the student of trades union history.

J. G. Brissenden, The Launching of the Industrial Workers of the World (1913). An account of the origin of the I. W. W.

J. G. Brooks, American Syndicalism: the I. W. W. (1913).

John Mitchell, Organized Labor (1903). A suggestive exposition of the principles of Unionism by a distinguished labor leader. It contains only a limited amount of historical matter.

T. V. Powderly, Thirty Years of Labor (1889). A history of the Knights of Labor from a personal viewpoint.

E. L. Bogart, The Economic History of the United States (rev. ed., 1918). A concise and clear account of our economic development.

R. T. Ely, Evolution of Industrial Society (1903).

Carroll D. Wright, The Industrial Evolution of the United States (1895).

G. S. Callender, Selections from the Economic History of the United States (1909). A collection of readings. The brief introductory essays to each chapter give a succinct account of American industrial development to 1860.

INDEX A Aberdeen (S. D.), I. W. W. in, 212. Adamson Law (eight-hour railroad law), 133 (note), 160, 164-166, 247. Agrarian Party, 224. Akron (O.), strike in rubber works, 206-207. Albany, trade unions in, 34. Albany Mechanical Society (1801), 22. Allegheny City, ten-hour controversy in cotton mills, 54. Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers, 126. Amalgamated Labor Union, 88. Amalgamated Wood Workers' Association, 109. Amboy (Ill.), Conductors' Union organized (1868), 150. American Alliance for Labor and Democracy, 101-102. American Association for Labor Legislation, 251. "American Cossacks", 254. American Federation of Labor, suggested at Terre Haute (1881), 88; established (1886), 89; growth, 89-90, organization, 90-93, 112; Gompers and, 94 et seq.; financial policy, 97; and Great War, 100 et seq.; and labor readjustment, 107; attitude toward socialism, 108, 111, 245, 256; tendency toward amalgamating allied trades, 109-110; and unskilled labor, 109; importance, 110-111; Mitchell and, 128; and Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers, 133 (note); and Buck's Stove and Range Company boycott, 181; and Danbury Hatters' case, 184; and I. W. W., 194; and Lawrence Mill Workers, 203; and politics, 242, 245-246, 256; influences legislation, 246-252; and American Labor Party movement, 255-256. American Federationist, organ of American Federation of Labor, 92, 181, 195. American Labor Party, movement for forming, 255. America Newspaper Publishers Association, 169. American Railway Union, and strikes, 158, 159; Debs president of, 243. Anthracite Coal Strike (1902), 113, 129-130, 174; Commission cross-examines Mitchell, 130 (note). Anti-Boycott Association, 180. Anti-Monopolist Party, 233. Arbitration, 85-86; law providing for settlement of railway disputes (1888), 85; in Anthracite Coal Strike, 129-130; Board to deal with railway problems (1912), 146-150; Erdman Act (1898), 146, 162; Federal legislation (1883), 161-162; Newlands Law (1913), 162; Brotherhoods refuse (1916), 163-164. Arizona, "hobo" labor in, 190. Arkwright, Sir Richard, invents roller spinning machine, 7. Arnold, F. W., 154. Arthur, P. M., 141-143. Association of Longshoremen, 117. Aurora, Philadelphia newspaper, 23. B Baltimore, guilds before Revolution in, 21; tailors' strike (1795), 22; early unions in, 34; Baltimore and Ohio strikes, 57, 67; Labor Congress (1866), 73. Bancroft, H. H., quoted, 241-242. Bank, United States, as political issue, 27. Beecher, H. W., and eight-hour day, 71. Belgium, syndicalism in, 189; general strikes, 200. Bell, A. G., and the telephone, 64. Benson, A. L., presidential candidate (1916), 243-244. Bentham, Jeremy, Place and, 17. Berger, Victor, 244, 245. Berne (Switzerland), labor conference at, 105-106. Billings (Mont.), treatment of I. W. W. leaders in, 216. Bisbee (Ariz.), I. W. W. strikers in, 216. Bolshevists, Gompers's attitude toward, 108; and I. W. W., 218. Boston, early trade unions in, 34; strike benefits in, 39; coöperative movement, 46-47; strikes because of cost of living (1853), 57; eight-hour societies, 70; workingman's party, 227. Boston Labor Reform Association circulates Steward's pamphlet, 71. Boston Trades Union, 33. Bowerman, Charles, 257. Boycott, Captain, 177 (note). Boycott, 177 et seq.; used against convict labor, 37; union label as weapon, 184-186; court injunction to prevent, 252. Braidwood (Ill.), Mitchell at, 127-128. Brewer, Justice D. J., on strike violence, 174. Brewery workers and control of coopers, 118. Brisbane, Albert, 47. Brissenden, J. G., The Launching of the Industrial Workers of the World, cited, 196 (note). Brook Farm experiment, 41. Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers, origin, 133; and American Federation of Labor, 133 (note); character, 134; supervision of members, 135-136; excludes firemen, 136; attitude toward nonmembers, 136-137; business policy, 137-138; activities, 138-140; organization, 140; and Firemen's Brotherhood, 154. Brotherhood of the Footboard, 133. Brotherhood of Trainmen, 156. Brush, C. F., and electric lighting, 64. Buck's Stove and Range Company of St. Louis, boycott case, 180-182, 254. Buffalo, machinists' strike (1880), 67-68; annual convention of Federation of Labor (1917), 101; railway strike (1877), 174; I. W. W. disclosures, 217. Burns, John, 123. Butler, General B. F., 232-233. Butte (Mont.), Western Federation of Miners organized at, 192. C California, effect of discovery of gold on cost of living, 57; "hobo" labor in, 190; political labor movement, 238-242; Workingman's party, 239; new constitution, 241. Cannon, J. G., 248. Carlyle, Thomas, 18; and British industrial conditions, 9; Emerson writes to, 41. Carter, W. S., 154-156. Cedar Rapids (Ia.), headquarters of Order of Railway Conductors, 150. Charleston Navy Yard, eight-hour day in (1842), 70. Chevalier, Michael, quoted, 37. Chicago, stockyards' strike (1880), 67; Haymarket riots, 68, 83-84; Railway strike (1877), 174; "floaters" winter in, 190; conferences organize I. W. W., 193-194; revolutionary branch of I. W. W. in, 196; I. W. W. offices raided, 217; Labor Party conference, 235; movement to form American Labor party, 255. Child labor, 28; in England, 9; Greeley and, 52-53; Paris peace treaty and, 107; State regulation, 250. Chinese denounced in California, 238, 239. Cigar-makers' International Union, Gompers and, 94. Cincinnati, becomes manufacturing town (1820), 26; early Unions in, 34; coöperative movement in, 45, 46; Railway strike (1877), 174; National Union party organized (1887), 233. Civil War, condition of the United States after, 63-64. Clark, E. E., 151. Clayton Act, 100, 184, 247. Cleveland, Grover, Message (1886), 85; and Pullman strike, 174. Cleveland, Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers own building in, 140; Firemen's Magazine published in, 156; I. W. W. disclosures, 217. Clinton, De Witt, 23. Collective bargaining, trade unions and, 168-171. Colorado, miners' strikes, 174, 193; "hobo" labor in, 190; labor ticket (1888), 237. Columbia, puddlers' strike (1880), 67. Columbus, American Federation of Labor established (1886), 89; Order of Conductors organized (1868), 150. Combinations in restraint of trade, origin of doctrine, 16; in England, 17. Coming Nation, A. H. Simons editor of, 195. Commerce of Great Britain, 6. Commons, J.R., 29-30. Communistic colonies, Owen's attempts, 40-41; Brook Farm, 41. Comstock, Russell, 223. Confédération Général du Travail, 189. Congress, Homestead Act (1862), 50; establishes eight-hour day for public work, 71; Clayton bill (1914), 100, 184, 247; eight-hour railroad law, 133 (note), 160, 164-165, 166, 247; Wilson and, 164; and I. W. W., 216; American Federation of Labor, 247. Connecticut, delegates to the national cordwainers' convention (1836), 35; labor politics, 227, labor ticket (1872), 237. Conspiracy, legal doctrine in England, 15-16; strikers tried for, 23; trials in New York City, 23-24, 32; acting in unison considered, 28. Convict labor, 36; boycott used against, 37. Cooper, Peter, 231. Coöperative movement, 45-48; 58. Corn laws, 6. Cost of living, bread riots caused by high, 39; Mooney on (1850), 43-44; in 1853, 57; Stone's attempt to adjust wages to meet, 144. Council of National Defense, 102-103. Crompton, Samuel, and spinning machine, 7. D Daily Advertiser, New York, on strikes (1834), 172. Daily People, DeLeon editor of, 195. Danbury Hatters' Boycott, 180, 182-184. Daniels, Newell, 74. Davis, Judge David, 230. Debs, E. V., 154, 195, 243, 253. Debt, imprisonment for, 36. Declaration of Independence, 1. Defoe, Daniel, on domestic system of manufacture, 4-5. Delaware, delegates to national cordwainers' convention (1836), 35. DeLeon, Daniel, 195. Democratic party and ten-hour day, 53. Detroit, headquarters for Socialist factions of I. W. W., 196; I. W. W. offices raided, 217. Direct action, 200-201. Dover, (N. H.), mill girls' strike (1829), 55. Duncan, James, 124. E Edison, T. A., 64. Education, condition before 1840, 28; issue with labor, 36, public school improvement, 42; Paris peace treaty and, 107. Edward III, proclamation of 1349, 12. Eidlitz, O. M., 146. Eight-Hour League, 70; see also Hours of labor. Elevator Constructors' Union, 118 Eliot, C. W., and Gompers, 98. Ely, R. T., quoted, 21. Emerson, R. W., on communistic experiments, 41. Employers' organizations, 249. Erdman Act, 146, 162. Erie Railroad, firemen organize Brotherhood, 152. Erne, Lord, Irish landlord, 177 (note). Ettor, J. J., 204. Evans, G. H., 48-49. Evans, Samuel, 233. Evening Post, account of mass meeting in New York, 32; quoted, 33. Everett, Edward, 53. Everett (Wash.), and I. W. W., 212. F Factory Girls' Association (Lowell), 55. Factory inspection, Paris peace treaty and, 107; as political issue, 231; provided by law, 249-250. Farmers' Alliance, 233; and Knights of Labor at St. Louis, 235. Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions of the United States and Canada, 89. Female Industry Association, 56. Female Labor Reform Association, 55. Field, J. G., 236. Finance, demand for capital after Civil War, 64-65; reform as a political issue, 231; People's party platform, 236; see also Panics, Taxation. Firemen's Magazine, 155, 156. "Five Stars," see Knights of Labor. Flynn, E. G., 208. Force, Peter, 24. Foster, F. K., The Labor Movement, the Problem of Today, quoted, 75-76. Fox, Martin, 116. France, syndicalism in, 188; general strikes, 200. Free Enquirer, 222. Friendly Societies, 168. Furuseth, Andrew, 247. G Garretson, A. B., 151, 152. General Trades' Union of New York City, 31. George, Henry, 234; Evans precursor of, 48. Glassblowers' Union, 124. Goldfield (Nev.), I. W. W. at, 202. Goldman, Emma, on syndicalism, 198; on general strikes, 199. Gompers, Samuel, President of American Federation of Labor, 94 et seq.; early life, 94; national lobbyist for Federation, 99, 247; organizes American Alliance for Labor and Democracy, 101; on Council of Defense, 102; heads American labor mission to Europe (1917), 104-105; and Berne labor conference, 105-106; contribution to Paris treaty of peace, 106-107; and Socialism, 107-108; personal characteristics, 108; sentenced to imprisonment, 182, 254; birthday occasion of gift to Danbury union, 184; on American labor party, 255; experience at London Conference (1918), 256-258. Government control of public utilities, People's party demands, 236. Government operation of railroads, Brotherhoods' plan for (1919), 167. Government ownership, National Labor party on, 230 (note). Government Printing Office, Roosevelt espouses open shop in, 248. Grangers, help organize National Union party, 233; join Workingman's party in California, 240. Granite City (Ill.), early morning strikes in steel mills, 210-211. Granite Cutters' National Union, 124. Gray's Harbor (Wash.), I. W. W. in, 212. Great Britain, American institutions modeled after those of, 1-2; survey of industrial system, 2 et seq.; ten-hour law in, 53; British Trades Union as model for American Federation, 88; labor leaders in, 123; labor compared with that in America, 124. Great War, American Federation of Labor and, 100 et seq.; and railroads, 166-167; I. W. W. and, 215; and Socialist party, 244-245. Greeley, Horace, and ten-hour bill, 52; on child labor law, 53; and eight-hour day, 71. Green Point (L. I.), potters' strike (1880), 67. Greenback party, 68, 231, 237. Guild system, 3-4, 13. H Hamond, Edward, on I. W. W., 198. Hardie, Keir, 123. Hargreaves, James, invents spinning-jenny, 7. Harriman, Job, 243. Hayes, Dennis, 124-125. Hayes, R. B., proclamation, 67. Haywood, W. D., 195, 197, 202; quoted, 199. Henderson, Arthur, 257. Henderson, John, 123. Herald, New York, quoted, 56. Hewitt, A. S., 234. Highland Park (Ill.), Home for Disabled Railroad Men, 139. Hines, W. D., Director-General of Railroads, 167. Homestead Act (1862), 50. Homestead strike (1892), 126, 174. Homesteaders, 233. Hoqiam (Wash.), sabotage in, 212. Hours of labor, long hours, 28, 44; ten-hour day, 30-31, 32, 34, 35, 44, 50-54, 160; first ten-hour law (1847), 52; as issue, 69-70; eight-hour day, 70-72, 74, 129, 152; Paris peace treaty and eight-hour day, 106; eight-hour railroad law, 133 (note), 160, 164-166, 247; eight-hour law as political issue, 231; State regulation, 250. Housing conditions about 1840, 27. Hume, Joseph, 17-18. I I. W. W., see Industrial Workers of the World. Idaho, miners' strike, 174; "hobo" labor in, 190; violence in, 193; and I. W. W., 216. Illinois, strikes, 66, 67; eight-hour law (1867), 71; I. W. W. and draft in, 216; United Labor party in, 235; labor code, 249. Illinois Central Railroad, conductors organize union, 150. Immigration, character of immigrants, 26; adds to armies of labor, 69; I. W. W. and, 191; People's party on, 236. Indiana, strikes, 66, 67; shoemakers' strike (1880), 68; labor ticket (1888), 237. Indianapolis, McNamara trial at, 175. Industrial Commission, United States, 152; report quoted, 168; on union restriction of output, 186. Industrial Revolution, 26. Industrial Workers of the World, American Alliance for Labor and Democracy as an anecdote for, 101; and American Federation of Labor, 109; history of movement, 188 et seq.; factions, 196; and direct action, 200-201; and Socialist party, 245. Industry, centralization of, 87-88. "Infidel" party, 223, 224. Inspection, see Factory inspection. Insurance, Locomotive Engineers' Mutual Life and Accident Insurance Association, 138-139; Order of Railway Conductors, 150; Brotherhood of Trainmen, 160-161. Inter-Allied Labor Conference, London (1918), 256-258. International Association of Machinists, 125. International Association of Steam, Hot Water and Power Pipe Fitters and Helpers, 119. International Firemen's Union, 152-153. International Typographical Union of North America, 60, 126, 169. Interstate commerce, regulation as political issue, 231. Interstate Commerce Commission, and wage increases, 145; Clark on, 151; Wilson asks for reorganization of, 164. Ipswich (Mass.), meeting against I. W. W., 211. Iron Molders' Union of North America, 60, 169. Italy, syndicalism in, 189; general strikes, 200. J Jackson, Andrew, and mechanics, 27. Jay, John, on wages (1784), 21. Jenkins, Judge J. G., of United States Circuit Court, on strike violence, 174. Johnstown, puddlers' strike (1880), 67. Journeymen, Stone Cutters' Association of North America, 60. Judson, F. K., 146. K Kansas, I. W. W. and draft, 216; labor ticket (1888), 237. Kay, John, invents flying shuttle, 7. Kearney, Dennis, 238. Keefe, D. J., 126-127. Kidd, Thomas, 125. Knapp, Judge, of United States Commerce Court, 146. Knights of Industry, 88. Knights of Labor, 72; history of, 76-85; contrasted to American Federation of Labor, 90; Mitchell and, 127, 128; and Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers, 133 (note); help organize National Union party, 233; and Farmers' Alliance at St. Louis, 235; and Socialist party, 245. "Knights of St. Crispin," 72, 74-76. L Labor, organizations in eighteenth century, 14-15; organizations in American before Revolution, 21; and politics, 68, 74, 220 et seq.; relations with capital, 69; number of wage-earners in United States (1860-1890), 69; Congress at Baltimore (1866), 73; Bureau of, established (1884), 85; and corporations, 87; and Paris peace treaty, 106-107; leaders, 121-123; Department of, and Brotherhoods, 163; "floaters," 189-190; special report of United States Commissioners of (1905), 193; contract labor as political issue, 231; legislation, 247-252; see also Hours of labor; and the courts, 252-254; bibliography, 261; see also Child labor, Convict labor, Hours of labor, Strikes, Trade unions, Wages. Labor Reform League, 51. Labor Reform party, 74, 229-230. Labour Party in England, 18. Land, Evans and, 48-50; Homestead Act (1862), 50; forfeiture of grants as political issue, 231. Lawrence (Mass.), unemployment (1857), 62; strike (1912), 202-206. Lee. W. G., 160. Lima (N. Y.), Clark at, 151. Little Falls (N. Y.), strike in textile mills (1912), 206. Littlefield, Congressman from Maine, 247-248. Locomotive Engineers' Journal, 136, 139. Locomotive Engineers' Mutual Life and Accident Insurance Association, 138-139. Loeb, Daniel, alias Daniel DeLeon, 195. London, Inter-Allied Labor Conference (1918), 256-258. London Corresponding Society, 17. Los Angeles, dynamiting of Times building, 175. Lowell (Mass.), condition of women factory workers (1846), 44-45; women strike in (1836), 55. Lowell Female Industrial Reform and Mutual Aid Society, 55. Lynch, J. M., 126. M McAdoo, W. G., 166. McCulloch, J. R., 18. MacDonald, Ramsey, 123. Machinists' Union, 118. McKee, National Conventions and Platforms, cited, 233 (note), 244 (note). McKees Rocks (Penn.), I. W. W. at, 202. McMaster, J. B., quoted, 26. McNamara, James, 175. McNamara, J. J., 175. Maine, labor politics, 227, labor party (1878), 232. Mann, Horace, 42. Manufacturers' Association, 249. Manufacturing, guild system replaced by domestic, 4; introduction of machinery, 7-10; in United States, 24-26. Martineau, Harriet, cited, 35-36. Marx, Karl, 9; follower addresses meeting in New York, 47. Maryland, class distinctions, 20; strikes, 66. Massachusetts, factories in 1820, 25; first labor investigation, 51; women factory workers, 56; Bureau of Labor and collective bargaining, 169-170; labor politics, 227; labor party (1878), 232; labor code, 249. Mechanics' Union of Trade Associations, 29. Menlo Park, (N. J.), electric car in, 64. Mercantile system, 5-6. Metal Polishers' Union and Buck's Stove and Range case, 180. Metal Trades Association, 249. Mexican Central Railway, Garretson on, 152. Michigan, "hobo" labor in, 190; labor ticket (1888), 237. Militia, use during strikes, 37, 244-245. Mill, James, Place and, 17. Milwaukee, Knights of St. Crispin in, 74; and Socialism, 244, 245. Minnesota, "hobo" labor in, 190; labor ticket (1888), 237. Missouri, strikes, 66; eight-hour law (1867), 71; labor ticket (1888), 237. Mitchell, John, president of United Mine workers, 113, 114, 128-129; his life and character, 127-128; and Anthracite Coal Strike, 129-130; quoted, 131-132; on compulsory membership in unions, 170; on collective bargaining, 170; sentenced to imprisonment, 182, 254. Montana, "hobo" labor in, 190; violence in, 193; and I. W. W., 216. Mooney, Thomas, Nine Years in America (1850), quoted, 43-44. Moore, Ely, 31. Morrison, Frank, 182, 254. Morrissey, P. H., 146, 148, 158-160. N National Civic Federation, 152. National Convention of Journeymen Printers (1850), 60. National Erectors' Association, 249. National Labor party, convention, 230 (note); see also Labor Reform party. National Labor Union, 73-74, 229. National Metal Trade Association, 125. National Protective Association, 133. National Trade Association of Hat Finishers, 60. National Trades Union, 34. National Typographical Union, 60. National Union party, 233. Navigation Laws, 6, 10. Nebraska, labor ticket (1888), 237. Nevada, and I. W. W., 216. New Brunswick, union in, 34. New England, class distinctions, 20; manufacture in, 25; women in textile mills, 55; cotton weavers' strike (1880), 67; labor politics, 225-227. New England Association of Farmers, Mechanics, and Workingmen, 225. New England Protective Union, 48. New England Workingmen's Association, 46, 51. New Hampshire, first ten-hour law, 52. New Jersey, manufacturing in, 25; delegates to national cordwainers' convention (1836), 35; ten-hour law (1851), 54; stablemen's strike (1880), 67; labor party, 232. New York (State), delegates to national cordwainers' convention (1836), 35; communistic colonies, 41; cotton weavers' strike (1880), 67; eight-hour law (1867), 71; boycotts, 178; labor party (1878), 232; United Labor party in, 235; labor code, 249. New York Boycotter quoted, 179. New York Bureau of Statistics and Labor, on boycotts, 178. New York Central Railroad, Arthur as engineer on, 141. New York City, early labor organizations, 21, 22; cordwainers' strike (1809), 23-24; growth, 25; strikes (1833), 31; General Trades' Union organized, 31; tailors' strike (1836), 32; union in, 34; boycott of convict labor, 37; sabotage in (1835), 38; strike benefits, 39; coöperative movement, 47-48; women's organizations (1825), 55; Female Industry Association organized (1845), 56; strikes (1853), 57; national meeting of carpet-weavers (1846), 60; demonstration in 1857, 61-62; unemployment, 62; ribbon weaver' strike (1880), 67; stablemen's strike (1880), 67; tailors' strike (1880), 68; Third Avenue Railway strike (1886), 83; Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers expels members (1905), 138 (note); garment makers' strike (1915), 169; bakers strike (1741), 172; Mrs. Grey boycotted, 178-179; "floaters" winter in, 190; "army of the unemployed" (1913-1914), 209; labor politics, 222; election (1886), 234; Socialist-Labor convention (1892), 242; movement to form American Labor party, 255. New York Masons Society (1807), 22. New York Protective Union, 48. New York Society of Journeymen Shipwrights (1807), 22. New York Typographical Society, 24. Newark (N. J.), union in, 34. Newlands Law, 162. Noble Order of the Knights of Labor, see Knights of Labor. Northern Pacific Railroad, Clark on, 151. Norway, syndicalism in, 189. O O'Connell, James, 125. O'Conor, Charles, of New York, 230. Ohio, communistic colonies in, 41; ten-hour law (1852), 54; strikes, 66, 67; in election of 1916, 166; labor ticket (1888), 237. Oklahoma, I. W. W. and draft, 216. Omaha, stockyards strike (1880), 67; People's party convention (1892), 236. Oneonta (N. Y.), Brotherhood of the Trainmen organized at (1883), 156. Orange (N. J.), Hatters' Union victory in, 182. Order of Railway Conductors, 150-152. Oregon, "hobo" labor in, 190; and I. W. W., 216. Original Working Man's party, 224. Osceola (Ia.), Garretson born in, 151. Oshkosh (Wis.), Kidd arrested in, 25. Owen, Robert, Place and, 17; in America, 40-41, 58. Owens, R. D., 222, 225. P Panics (1837), 34, 35, 40, 50-51; (1857), 61-62; (1873-1874), 66; (1893), 158. Paris Peace Conference, Commission on International Labor Legislation, 105; Gompers and the treaty, 106-107. Parker, Joel, Governor of New Jersey, 230. Paterson (N. J.), ribbon weavers' strike (1880), 67; silk mills strike (1913), 207-209. Pennsylvania, communistic colonies in, 41; ten-hour law, 53; child labor law, 53; coal miners (1873), 66; strikes, 67; labor party (1878), 232; labor ticket (1872), 237; labor code, 249; mounted constabulary, 254. Pennsylvania Railroad, Brotherhood and, 141. People's Council, 101. People's party, 235, 236; see also Populist party. Philadelphia, early labor organizations, 21, 22; weaving center, 26; first Trades' Union in, 29; Trades' Union of the City and County of, 30; number of union members (1834), 34; strike (1835), 37; sabotage in, 38; strike benefits, 39; coöperative movement, 45-46, 47; strikes, 57; unemployment (1857), 62; ribbon weavers' strike (1880), 67; Knights of Labor in, 81; cordwainers (1806), 171; cordwainers' strike (1792), 172; hatters' union victory, 182; Lawrence strikers start for, 204; Workingman's party, 220-221; workingmen's political clubs, 221-222. Phillips, Wendell, and ten-hour movement, 53; and eight-hour day, 71; nominated Governor of Massachusetts, 237. Pinkerton detectives opposed by People's party, 236. Pittsburgh, becomes manufacturing town, 26; union in, 34; strikes, 57; riots, 67; Federation of Organized Trades established (1881), 89; railway strikes (1877), 174. Pittsburgh, Fort Wayne and Chicago Railroad, Brotherhood and, 136; Place, Francis, 17, 18. Plumb plan of railroad operations, see Government operation of Railroads. Poindexter, Miles, Senator, and I. W. W., 216. Politics, Labor and, 68, 74, 220 et seq.. Populist party, 235, 242; see also People's party. Port Jervis (N. Y.), Firemen's Brotherhood organized at, 152. Portland (Ore.), I. W. W. at, 202. Postal savings banks, advocated by People's party, 236. Powderly, T. V., Grand Master of Knights of Labor, 79-80, 84. Prison reform, 42. Progressive party, 232. Progressive Labor party,233. Pullman strike, 172, 174, 195, 243, 253. Q Quinlan, Patrick, 208. R Railway Brotherhoods, 133 et seq. Railway Conductor, The, 150-151. Reading, railway strike (1877), 174. Red Bank (N. J.), communistic experiment at, 41. Referendum, National Labor party on, 230 (note). Revolutionary War, new epoch for labor begins with, 21. Rhode Island, ten-hour law (1853), 54; labor politics, 227. Ripley, George, and Brook Farm experiment, 41. Rock Island Railroad, Stone on, 143-144. Roosevelt, Theodore, and Gompers, 98, 99; intervention in coal miners' strike, 129, 130; and Clark, 151; and Sargent, 154; defeated as mayor of New York City, 234; Federation of Labor opposes, 248. Ruskin, John, and labor conditions, 9. Russia, general strikes, 200. S Sabotage, 38, 201 et seq., 211. Sacramento (Cal.), I. W. W. trials (1919), 217; Workingman's party convention (1878), 240. St. Louis, union in, 34; Knights of Labor in, 82, 83; meeting of Knights of Labor and Farmers' Alliance, 235. St. Louis Central Trades and Labor Union, 181. San Diego, I. W. W. in, 213-215. San Francisco, stablemen's strike (1880), 67; "floaters" winter in, 190; labor situation (1877), 238; Workingman's Trade and Labor Union of, 239. Sargent, F. P., 154. Scandinavia, general strikes in, 200. Schaffer, Theodore, 126. Schenectady, union in, 34. Scranton (Penn.), Powderly at, 79. Seaman's Act (1915), 247 (note). Seamen's Union, 117. Sexton, James, 257. Shaw, Albert, 146. Shaw, Chief Justice of Massachusetts, opinion in Commonwealth vs. Hunt, 60-61. Sherman Anti-Trust Law, Gompers and, 99; and boycott, 183. Silver, free coinage, 236. Simons, A. M., 195. Skidmore, Thomas, 224; The Rights of Man to Property . . ., 222. Smith, Adam, 10, 18; The Wealth of Nations, 1. Smith, Sidney, quoted, 24-25. Snowden, Phillip, 123. Social Democratic party, 243. Socialism, synonym of destruction, 62; organized labor and, 245, 258. Socialist Labor party, 196, 243. Socialist party, 196; Social Democratic party becomes known as, 243; in Milwaukee, 244; progress (1912), 244; and Great War, 244-245. Socialist American Labor Union, 194. Sorel, Georges, The Socialist Future of the Trade Unions, 188-189; Reflections Upon Violence, 189. Spain, syndicalism in, 189. Spargo, John, 245; Syndicalism, Industrial Unionism and Socialism, 201. Spokane, I. W. W. in, 212. Springfield Republican, on labor party, 226-227. Stanwood, History of the Presidency, cited, 244 (note). State Guardianship Plan, 225. Statute of Laborers (1562), 12. Stephens, U. S., founder of Knights of Labor, 76-77, 78, 79. Steunenberg, Frank, Governor of Idaho, murdered, 193. Steward, Ira, and eight-hour day, 70-71; A Reduction of Hours and Increase of Wages, 71. Stone, W. S., 143-145, 149-150. Strasser, Adolph, testimony before Senate Committee (1883), 120-121. Strauss, O. S., 146. Streeter, A. J., 233. Strikes, weapon of self-defense, 14; tailors' strike in Baltimore (1795), 22; cordwainers in Philadelphia (1805), 22-23; cordwainers in New York City (1809), 23; first general building strike (1827), 30; first general strike in America (1835), 30-31; (1834-1837), 32; issues not to be settled by, 36; use of militia, 37, 254-255; sabotage, 38, 201 et seq.; benefits, 39; Boston tailors (1850), 46-47; New York tailors, 47-48; Dover mill girls (1829), 55; Lowell womens factory workers (1836), 55; in 1853, 57; Baltimore and Ohio, 57, 67, 133; become part of economic routine, 66; increase in number and importance, 66-68; in 1880, 67-68; of 1886, 68, 82-84; Anthracite Coal Strike, 113, 129-130, 174; O'Connell leads, 125; New York City railway (1905), 138 (note); railroad, 141, 142, 145, 153, 158, 174; Brotherhood threatens (1916), 163, 165; New York City garment makers, 169; history in United States, 171-173; strike statistics of United States Bureau of Labor, 172, 173; violence, 174-176; Lawrence mill strike (1912), 202-206; Little Falls textile strike, 206; Akron rubber works, 206-207; Granite City (Ill.), steel mills, 210-211; court prevention, 252-253. Supreme Court, Danbury Hatters' case, 183; open shop decision, 252. "Supreme Mechanical Order of the Sun," 72. Syndicalism, in Europe, 188; I. W. W. and, 198. T Taft, W. H., vetoes exemption bill for Anti-Trust Law, 99. Tammany Hall, 32. Tannenbaum, Frank, 209-210. Tariff, demand for protective, 27. Tax Reformers, 233. Taxation, single tax, 234, 235; income tax, 231, 236. Terre Haute (Ind.), convention (1881), 88-89. Texas, I. W. W. and draft, 216. Thomas, C. S., Senator, report on I. W. W., 216. Times, Los Angeles, dynamiting of building, 175. Toledo, (O.), conference of Labor Reform and Greenback parties, 231. Trade unions, beginnings, 29-39; temporary eclipse, 40; new species in the early fifties, 58-59; organization of special trades, 60; organization, 112; conventions, 112-113; local unions, 114-116; characterization of different trades, 116-117; disputes as to authority, 117-118; adjustment to changing conditions, 117-118; advantages of amalgamation, 119; and labor leaders, 121 et seq.; purpose, 168; and collective bargaining, 168-171; question of monopoly, 170-171; and strikes, 173-177; local autonomy, 177; union label, 184-186; restriction of output, 186-187; oppose use of military, 254; bibliography, 262. Trades' Union of the City and County of Philadelphia, 30. Transportation, demand for better, 27. Trautmann, W. E., 195; quoted, 198. Troy (N. Y.), union in, 34. Tulsa (Okla.), treatment of I. W. W. in, 216. U Unemployment, in 1857, 61-62; in 1873-1874, 66; "floaters," 190; among immigrants, 191; in San Francisco (1877), 238. Union Labor party, 233, 237; see also National Union Labor party. Union of Longshoremen, Marine and Transport Workers, 126. United Association of Journeymen Plumbers, Gas Fitters, Steam Fitters and Steam Fitters' Helpers, 119. United Brotherhood of Carpenters, 109. United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners of America, 110. United Hatters of North America, 60. United Labor party, 233, 234. United Mine Workers, 112, 117, 128-129, 177, 181. V Van Buren, Martin, executive order for ten-hour day, 51. Van Hise, C. R., 146. Vermont, labor politics, 227. Virginia, class distinction in, 20. W Wages, beginning of controversy, 11-12; in 1784, 21; result of tailors' strike, 22; rise of, 22; in 1840, 28; carpenters', 31; strikes to raise, 36; Mooney on (1850), 43; issue, 69-70; Paris peace treaty and, 106; United Mine Workers and, 129; Arthur and engineers', 142; Stone and, 144; Eastern engineers demand standardization of, 145; Garretson and, 152; brakemen's, 157; Wilkins and, 158; Adamson Law and, 166; further increase for railroad employees, 167; Trade unions and, 168-169; State regulation, 250. Walling, W. E., 245. Washington (State), "hobo" labor in, 190, and I. W. W., 216. Washington, (D. C.), union in, 34; Knights of Labor, 84; headquarters of American Federation of Labor in, 97. Weaver, General J. B., 232, 236. Webb, Sidney and Beatrice, History of Trade Unionism, 14. Weed, Thurlow, 24. West Roxbury (Mass.), Brook Farm experiment at, 41. Western Federation of Miners, 174, 189, 192, 194. Whig party and ten-hour day, 53. Wilkinson, S. E., 157. Willard, Daniel, 146, 149. Wilson, Woodrow, quoted, 72; and Clayton Act, 100; and Garretson, 152; and threatened strike of Brotherhoods (1916), 163-164; and eight-hour railroad law, 164-166. Wisconsin, communistic experiment in, 41; eight-hour law for women and children (1867), 71; labor ticket (1888), 237; Socialist party (1918), 245. Women, wages in 1840, 28; "new woman" movement, 43; conditions of labor, 44-45; in factories, 54-55; organizations, 55-56; Paris peace treaty and equal pay for, 107; State regulation of labor, 250. Wood Workers in shipbuilding industry, 110. Wood-Workers International Union, 125. Wooden Box Makers, 110. "Woodstock meetings," 226. Working Man's Advocate, The, 223, 225. Working Man's Gazette, 226. Workingman's party, 220-221. Workingman's party of California, 239, 240. Workingman's Trade and Labor Union of San Francisco, 239. Workingmen's compensation, 250. Wright, C. D., report quoted, 187. Wright, Frances, 222, 225. Y Youngson, A. B., 143. Youngstown (O.), I. W. W. at, 202.

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Transcriber's Note

This e-book is a direct transcription of the Textbook Edition of The Armies of Labor by Samuel P. Orth. There were three instances where changes were made to correct an error: one in the bibliography, one in the index, and one on page 231. Also, footnotes were changed in two instances due to the way we transcribe footnotes. There were some inconsistencies in hyphenating words, and these posed dilemmas in deciding how to transcribe a few words in the text. Those decisions appear below with the emendations to the text.

Page 94: The phrase, "the son of a cigar-maker" hyphenated cigar-maker for spacing between two lines. We could transcribe the word two ways. There are multiple uses of "cigar-maker" (see Page 113, Page 116, and Page 118 for a few examples). There is one lone usage of "cigarmaker" on Page 30. Since usage in this book tended toward the hyphen, cigar-maker on page 94 was transcribed with the hyphen. Page 136 and Page 137: Non-union is broken into two lines by a hyphen in two places in the same paragraph. We could transcribe the word two ways. The hyphen was employed on Page 127, but nonunion was used on Page 24 and Page 178. By a vote of 2-1, nonunion prevailed. Page 185: Trade-mark was split between two lines and hyphenated for spacing, thus giving the transcriber a choice. Only one other usage of the word was found in the text: trade-mark was hyphenated on Page 186. We therefore used the hyphen on Page 185 and transcribed the word "trade-mark." Page 243: On page 243 the book was inconsistent by using a hyphen in the "Social-Democratic party," only to omit the hyphen a few sentences later, on the same page. The hyphen was also not used in the index. Here, the inconsistency was retained. Page 196: In transcribing a book, we place footnotes after the paragraph where the footnote belongs. The paragraph beginning on page 195 and ending on page 196, contains 2 footnotes. In the book, ¹ appears on page 195 and ² appears on page 196, but both footnotes must be placed after the paragraph on page 196 due to the way that we transcribe the book. Therefore, footnote 1 on page 195 in the paper book is ¹ on page 196 of the e-book; and footnote 1 of page 196 in the paper book is ² on page 196 in the e-book. The same changes were made to the footnotes on Page 96 and Page 97. The paragraph beginning on page 96 and ending on page 97 had a footnote, and a second paragraph on page 97 had a footnote. In the book, ¹ appears on page 96 and ² appears on page 97, but both footnotes must be placed on page 97 due to the way that we transcribe the book. We changed the latter footnote on page 97 to ² to reduce confusion. The paper book abbreviates the Wobblies as I. W. W., which could cause the text formatter to break up the letters over two lines. One solution to overcome the text formatter is to write "I.W.W.", but the cramped phrase reads awkwardly. Modern history books use "IWW". I used the convention adopted by the paper book and hope that the reader is not too inconvenienced by the possible break of I. W. W. across two lines. Page 231: Changed "cooperation" to "coöperation" because every other spelling of that word and derivations had an oomlat. There were thirty-three occurrences of cöperation or coöperate or coöperate and even coördinate. The six occurrences of "coop" were either the name Cooper or the profession. My guess is that the publisher left out the oomlat here by mistake when hyphenating the word into two lines for spacing. Page 262: Every other item in the Bibliography has the date of the book in parenthesis with a period after the right parenthesis when the period is used. I have changed (1889.) after Terence Powderly's book to (1889). Page 270: Insert a comma in the index after "Industrial Workers of the World" and before "American Alliance . . .".