Part 8

It is strange to find here, in the north of Europe, a head-dress similar to that south of the Alps. The Norwegian Rifleman wears an almost identical hat with the Italian Bersagliere.

The idea of having their Army organised for a foreign campaign does not appear to have been entertained by the Norwegian-Swedish government. The men, however, are tough fighters and good campaigners, sturdy and enduring, abstemious and unassuming, and there is every reason to believe that the Scandinavian Army would be in any case fully equal to its true and destined use—_i.e._, the defence of the country.

SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.

In most European States the Army is worked by the Sovereign or Government of the country for the defence of the Crown and the nation, and for the upholding of the Law. This, however, was for a long time not the case in the south-western portion of Europe, _i.e._ the Iberian Peninsula. It could not be the case, for during even this century revolution has succeeded revolution, and the different forms of government introduced at rapidly-recurring intervals have made it impossible for the Army to be always at the beck and call of the head of the State for the time being. The energetic young king, Alfonso XII., who ascended the Spanish throne in 1874 (and died in 1885), experienced the necessity of making himself chief of the Army, and instituted a military system by which he hoped to put an end to the earlier irregularities.

[Sidenote: +Organisation.+]

The Army of Spain is therefore now divided into the Peninsular Army, which serves in Spain itself, and the Colonial Army, which serves in Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippine Islands.

[Sidenote: +Terms of Service.+]

The Peninsular Army is founded on the system of universal conscription, to which every Spaniard becomes liable on attaining his twentieth year. Those who are exempted by law from the Army are only called out in time of war, and those who belong to certain named professions are allowed to buy exemptions from service for £60. Of the remaining able-bodied men it is the ballot which decides which are to enter the Active Army.

Service is for twelve years on the whole, of which six years, as a rule, or three, or even less, are passed with the Colours. The remainder of a man’s service is passed in the Active Reserve. All those who are not taken by lot to serve with the Colours, including those exempted by law and purchase, are classed as “Disponible Recruits;” these receive only a very short training and are called out to reinforce the Army in case of necessity only. After six years’ service as such, the “Disponible” recruits enter the 2nd Reserve.

[Sidenote: +Organisation.+]

[Sidenote: +Infantry.+]

The kingdom of Spain is divided up into 14 Military Districts, each under a Captain-general. These are again divided into 140 Military Zones, each under a colonel, who is responsible for mobilisation and supply details. Each Zone comprises 1 Active, 1 Reserve, and 1 Depôt battalions. These latter two battalions are in peace-time represented only by cadres, which would be expanded into either Field or 2nd Line battalions in case of mobilisation. Of the 140 active battalions 20 are Rifles; the remainder form 60 Line regiments of 2 battalions each.

There are in peace-time no higher units than battalions; brigades, divisions, and army corps would be formed only in case of war.

The remainder of the Spanish Army consists of:—

[Sidenote: +Cavalry.+]

Cavalry— 8 Regiments of Lancers, 14 Regiments of Cazaderos (Light Horse), 2 Regiments of Hussars, 4 Regiments of Dragoons, each of 4 squadrons. Besides these there are 28 Reserve regiments, of which only cadres exist in peace-time, and 1 squadron of Life-Guards.

[Sidenote: +Artillery.+]

Artillery—5 Regiments of Divisional Artillery of 6 batteries each, altogether 30 batteries with 180 guns; 5 regiments of Corps Artillery of 4 batteries each, altogether 20 batteries with 120 guns; 2 regiments of Mountain Artillery, each of 6 batteries, altogether 72 guns, and 1 regiment of Siege and Position Artillery, 4 batteries of 4 guns each, altogether 16 guns. Total therefore, 388 guns, and 9 battalions Fortress Artillery.

[Sidenote: +Engineers.+]

Engineers—5 Pioneer regiments, 1 Railway battalion, 1 Telegraph battalion, and 5 Reserve regiments.

There is no Train in time of peace.

The peace-strength of the Peninsular Army amounts to 116,000 men.

Besides these there are 16 regiments of Gendarmes (Guardia Civil), numbering 15,000 men, and 11,000 men of the Carabineros, or Frontier Force.

The Colonial Army, about 33,000 men in all, is formed by voluntary enlistment.

[Sidenote: +Armament.+]

The Infantry is armed with the Remington rifle, the Cavalry with sword and Remington carbine. Three sections[21] of each squadron of Lancers carry the lance. The Artillery is armed with cast-steel Krupp guns of 3·15 inches calibre; the Mountain Artillery with those of 2·95 inches. The guns have, however, been altered to Colonel Placentia’s system.

The two Royal Household Companies, Halberdiers, are the only ones who wear the old Spanish dress.

The Spaniard combines the liveliness and hot blood of the southerner with the determination and endurance of the northerner, and would now count as one of the best soldiers in Europe if it were not that, in consequence of the long civil wars and disturbances in the country, he had become somewhat less amenable to discipline than formerly. If an instance is required of what Spaniards can do when fighting for their land and freedom, we have only to look at the guerilla and mountain warfare waged by this plucky nation against the old campaigners of Napoleon at the beginning of this century, before the English troops came to their assistance.

PORTUGAL.

[Sidenote: +Terms of Service.+]

Universal Conscription is the rule in Portugal as well as in most other countries, but there are numerous exemptions and sendings on “unlimited furlough with the Colours” (in order to save the national exchequer), so that the Army does not by any means comprise as many men as would appear from the strength as laid down on paper. With a nominal peace strength of 37,000, the actual strength is only about 18,000.

The terms of service are three years with the Colours, five years in the 1st Class, and four in the 2nd Class Reserves.

[Sidenote: +Organisation.+]

The Infantry consists of 24 Line and 12 Rifle regiments, each of 2 Active and 1 Depôt battalions, altogether 72 battalions, the Depôt battalions being skeleton ones.

Cavalry—10 regiments, of which the first two are Lancers, and the remainder Light Dragoons (Caçadores a Cavallo). Each regiment consists of 3 Active and 1 Depôt squadrons.

Artillery—3 Regiments of Field Artillery of 12 batteries each, 2 Regiments of Garrison Artillery of 12 companies each, 1 Mountain Brigade of 6 batteries.—Total, 32 Active and 10 Reserve batteries with 132 guns.

Engineers—2 Active and 1 Reserve battalions, and 1 Torpedo Company.

Portugal has, besides this Army, a Colonial Force of 9,600 men, chiefly natives.

The Infantry is now armed with the Kropatschek repeating-rifle; till quite recently, they had the Enfield rifle. The Field Artillery is chiefly armed with 3·54-inch steel Krupp guns.

More attention appears to be paid in Portugal to the Navy than to the Army, and it seems unlikely that the latter will be engaged in war, at all events for some time to come.

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 21: Out of four.]

SWITZERLAND.

The Swiss Republic, or rather the Free Confederation of twenty-two small Republics (Cantons), had its beginning in the four “Forest” towns of Schwyz, Uri, Unterwalden, and Glarus. It was by the treaties of 1815, upon which, after the downfall of Napoleon I., the present distribution of Powers was founded and still to a great extent remains, that the neutrality of Switzerland was recognised, so that she is now, to all intents and purposes, excluded from taking part in an European war. Being, however, surrounded by three Great Powers, whose Armies may at any time traverse her territories from any quarter, she is obliged to guard her neutrality very strictly. This object she seeks to accomplish by universal conscription and by a military system which is adapted to the exigencies of the country and rests on the so-called “Militia System.”

[Sidenote: +Terms of Service.+]

According to this system the conscript has to pass only a few weeks or months in being trained, and is subsequently called out for only a few weeks annually during peace-time. This system certainly allows of universal service in the widest sense of the word, and also gives a small State the power of calling out a proportionally large Army in time of war. At the same time, however, this system, in order to be of any use, would require the people to be naturally of a warlike tendency, and every man to be thoroughly accustomed to the use of a rifle; in fine, it would require that there should always be a nucleus of thoroughly-trained troops, even in peace-time.

Every Swiss is liable to service from the 20th to the 44th year of his age. Of these twenty-five years of service, thirteen are spent in the “Auszug” (Active Army) and twelve in the “Landwehr.” All able-bodied men between the ages of 17 to 50 who are not employed in either of the above branches belong to the “Landsturm.” Anyone who is not fit to serve has to pay a small fine as a sort of compensation.

In case of war the “Auszug” would provide the Army as follows:—

[Sidenote: +Organisation.+]

Infantry—98 Fusilier and 8 Rifle Battalions.

Cavalry—8 Regiments (24 squadrons) of Dragoons and 12 Companies of Guides.

Artillery—24 Regiments of Field Artillery, and 1 of Mountain Artillery, each of 2 batteries of 6 guns each— total, 300 guns, besides 10 batteries of Position Artillery.

Engineers—9 Battalions.

Train—8 Battalions.

[Sidenote: +Strength of Army.+]

The strength of the Field Army comes to about 100,000 men. It consists of the Army Staff and 8 Divisions, each comprising 2 Infantry Brigades, each Brigade comprising 2 Regiments of Infantry, 1 Rifle Battalion, 1 Regiment of Dragoons, 1 Company of Guides, 1 Brigade of Artillery, 1 Battalion of Engineers, 1 of Train, 1 Field Hospital and 1 Administration Company.

The Landwehr consists of nearly as many men as the Auszug, but the former are only called on to serve on garrison duty at home. As for arms, the Swiss troops are not behindhand with other nations. The Infantry is armed with the repeating Vetterli rifle, the Rifles with a similar short repeating-rifle, and the Dragoons with a repeating-carbine. The Field Artillery has three patterns of guns: the light 3·28-in., the heavy 3·93-in., and the mountain 2·92-inch guns. The Swiss soldier is more of a Light Infantry man than anything else; as for the Swiss Cavalry, it is not to be considered on the same footing as the Cavalry of other nations, being feeble.

The Swiss Militiaman is trained for a short time and then sent home with his uniform and rifle. Thereafter he appears yearly for a short training, in order to “keep his eye in.” This sketchy military education is, however, greatly helped by the numerous Cadet divisions in the schools, and by Volunteer Rifle and Gymnastic clubs.

HOLLAND AND BELGIUM.

The “Kingdom of the Netherlands,” instituted by the Vienna Congress in 1815, was, after the revolt of the southern provinces, divided into two kingdoms, Holland and Belgium, the former extending from the mouth of the Ems to those of the Rhine, Maas, and Scheldt, and the latter from these mouths to the north-eastern frontier of France. The neutrality of these two States, recognised by the other Great Powers of Europe, have so far exempted them from keeping up large standing armies, that their organisation remains very much as it was in 1830.

[Sidenote: +Terms of Service.+]

The Dutch military system is a combination of the old Voluntary Enlistment and the Militia systems. Every able-bodied young man between 20 and 25 years of age is bound to enter the Militia; the number of these not to exceed 11,000 annually. The length of service of these men, nominally one year, is as a matter of fact shortened to nine or even six months.

The Army consists partly of voluntarily-enlisted men, who bind themselves to six years’ service, and partly of Militiamen. Gaps are often caused by the impossibility of filling Volunteer vacancies by Militiamen, and this leads to the disadvantage that the training of the Militiamen is not so thorough as it might be, and also that the troops are not always kept up to their full establishment.

[Sidenote: +Organisation.+]

The Standing Dutch Army consists of—

Infantry—1 Grenadier and Rifle Regiment (comprising 3 battalions of Grenadiers and 2 of Rifles), and 8 Line Regiments of 5 battalions each—Grand total, 45 battalions.

Cavalry—3 Regiments of Hussars, each of 5 Field and one Depôt squadrons.

Artillery—1 Corps of Horse Artillery, 3 regiments Field Artillery, altogether 42 batteries with 252 guns: and 4 regiments of Garrison Artillery.

Engineers—3 Field Companies, 3 Fortress, 1 Railway and Telegraph Company, and 1 Instruction and Depôt Company.

Besides the above there is a Colonial Army Depôt of three companies, and the Corps of Maréchaussée, which corresponds to the Gendarmerie in other States, 373 men.

[Sidenote: +Strength of Army.+]

The total strength of the Active Army approaches 64,000 men and 270 guns. The Colonial Army, recruited entirely by voluntary enlistment, comes to about 30,000 men.

In case a necessity should arise for reinforcing the Dutch Army, another body of men has been formed, called the “Schutterij,” of all Dutchmen between their 20th and 30th years not included in the Active Army or Militia. No great expectations can be formed of this body, for the members are only trained for forty to fifty hours annually.

The Landsturm and Rifle Clubs are also destined to increase the strength of the Army in case of emergency.

Since Holland has been declared a neutral State, and her energy is chiefly devoted to the furthering of her commercial and colonial interests, the chief duty of the Army will probably be confined to that of national defence. The numerous sluices and canals, which would offer numerous obstacles to an invading army, would be of great assistance in case of war. It has, in fact, already happened that the country has been saved by letting in the sea through the sluices and forming a general inundation.

BELGIUM.

Belgium also is not one of the warlike States. She has, however, often served as a theatre of war for other nations, and her neutrality has not been always duly respected. She must therefore possess an Army, if only to watch her frontiers, and to prevent her total dependence on the will of other Powers. Her Army is, however, not numerous, and is considerably behindhand both in organisation and training.

[Sidenote: +Terms of Service.+]

Conscripts are chosen by ballot at the yearly so-called “Appels,” but this is easily evaded by either paying a substitute, or by paying an exemption of £64, in consideration of which the Government provides a substitute of its own finding.

[Sidenote: +Organisation.+]

The Belgian Army is formed as follows:

The Infantry numbers 4 Divisions, or 9 Brigades of 2 or 3 regiments each, _i.e.:_

1 Regiment of Carbineers. 1 Regiment of Grenadiers. 3 Regiments of Rifles. 14 Regiments of Infantry of the Line.

The Carbineer Regiment consists of 4 Active and 2 Depôt battalions; the remainder of 3 Active and 1 Depôt battalions, the latter being only skeleton battalions. This makes altogether 58 Active and 20 Depôt battalions.

The Cavalry numbers 2 Divisions of 2 brigades of 2 regiments each, _i.e._:—

2 Regiments of Light Dragoons. 2 Regiments of Guides (similar to Hussars), and 4 Regiments of Lancers,

each regiment numbering 4 Active and 1 Depôt squadrons—Grand total, 8 regiments, forming 32 Active and 8 Depôt squadrons.

Artillery—4 Regiments Field Artillery, consisting of 30 Field, 4 Horse and 6 Reserve batteries. The Reserve batteries are skeleton ones and have no guns. The remainder have 6 guns each—total, 34 batteries with 204 guns, besides 3 regiments of Siege Artillery, each of 16 Siege, 1 Reserve, and 1 Depôt batteries.

Engineers—1 Regiment of 3 battalions, and 5 companies for special work, _i.e._, pontooning, railway, telegraph, pyrotechnic and general trades.

Train—1 Battalion of 6 companies.

[Sidenote: +Strength of Army.+]

The whole peace-strength numbers about 45,000 men, with 204 guns. Both Dutch and Belgian Infantry are armed with single breech-loaders, the Beaumont and Albini rifles respectively, and there seems no present intention of introducing magazine-rifles.

The Belgian Army is clothed chiefly according to the French model; the tall bearskins of the Grenadiers and Guides are peculiar and striking.

Both Holland and Belgium will have to follow the example of other nations in adopting strict universal conscription. It will be only when this is accomplished that their Armies will represent the armed strength of the nation and satisfy the demands made on a National Army.

TURKEY AND THE STATES OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA.

[Sidenote: +Historical.+]

In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the inhabitants of Europe were several times alarmed by a common danger, that of invasion of their territories by a foreign race, Asiatic by extraction, and connected primarily with the Mongols. This race, known as Turks or Osmanli, had made itself master of Constantinople, the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, in 1453, and set up its government there under a Padishah or Sultan. From this point they extended their empire further and further to the north-west, over Hungary and the intervening lands, and took possession of the Hungarian capital, Buda, or Ofen. In 1683 they actually besieged Vienna, and this city would undoubtedly have fallen if it had not been for its heroic defence by Field-Marshal Rüdiger von Starhemberg, who held out till he was succoured by Duke Charles of Lorraine with the Army of the Austrian Empire, and John Sobieski, King of Poland.

The Turkish power now began to wane, and its forces gradually declined in strength during the wars with Russia in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. One by one the provinces of the Turkish Empire became detached from Turkish rule and proclaimed their independence under their own sovereigns. In this way arose the independent kingdoms of Greece, Servia, and Roumania, and the principality of Bulgaria (under Turkish suzerainty), all of them during the present century. Eastern Roumelia is still in the hands of the Turks, but she has her own administration. The Turkish Empire—once the terror of Christendom—is now fighting for very existence, and to retain her hold over the small remnants of her European possessions. Russia, who considers herself the champion of the Greek-Catholic Church in the East, would by this time have undoubtedly seized the lands of the “Sick Man” on the Bosphorus, if it were not that the ambition of other Powers has secured a frail but fleeting life for him. Since, however, Turkey is determined not to let go of her European possessions without a stiff fight for them, and since no one can foretell what far-reaching consequences such a war would entail, we must not skip her over, but must give a short account of her Army as well as of the others.

Turkey has now, since the disbanding of the Janissaries (who formed the Sultan body-guard, of 12,000 men at first, and later of 100,000), organised her Army on a purely European footing. The officer who is chiefly responsible for this organisation, and who was sent for that purpose to Turkey, at the request of the then Sultan Mahmoud II., from 1835 to 1839, is no less a personage than Field-Marshal Count Moltke.

Since his time, the Turkish Army has improved after every war. Though it is yet by no means equal to that of any of the great Powers, still that is the fault of neither the military system nor yet of the Turkish soldier. The responsibility lies with the confused system of military administration, which deals in the most hopeless and in the worst possible way with the clothing and equipment, and even with the feeding and pay of the Army.

[Sidenote: +Terms of Service.+]

According to the Law, every able-bodied Mahomedan inhabitant of Turkey is bound to serve in the Army. Christians are exempted on payment of a fine.

Service in the “Nizam,” or Active Army, lasts six years, of which the Infantry soldier spends three and the Cavalry and Artilleryman four years with the Colours and the remaining time in the Active Reserve or “Ikhtiat.” After this the soldier joins the Landwehr or “Redif” for eight years, and subsequently six years in the Landsturm or “Muhstafiz.” As a matter of fact, the period of service with the Colours is usually reduced to two years, or three at the outside.

[Sidenote: +Organisation.+]

The whole Turkish Empire is divided into 7 military districts or “Ordu,” of which the seventh, Arabia, is exceptionally constituted. “Ordus” 1 to 6 have each in peace-time to supply 1 Army Corps of Nizam troops, and, besides this, 1 to 2 Army Corps of the Redif in case of necessity. The seventh Ordu only possesses 1 Army Corps altogether.

Each Corps consists of 2 Infantry Divisions, 2 Cavalry Divisions, 1 Regiment of Field Artillery, 1 battalion of Pioneers and 1 of the Train.

A Division consists of 2 brigades; an Infantry brigade numbers 2, and a Cavalry 3, regiments. A regiment of Infantry numbers 5 battalions, of which 1 is a Depôt battalion; a regiment of Cavalry, 5 squadrons, of which 1 is a Depôt squadron.

The Artillery Regiment numbers 14 batteries, of which 3 are Horse Artillery and 2 mountain batteries, each of 6 guns.

The 18 Army Corps of the Turkish Field Army, (including Redif) comprise a strength of 612,000 men, with 1,512 guns,[22] and these could be heavily reinforced by drawing on the “Muhstafiz.”

[Sidenote: +Armament.+]

The Infantry is armed with three different patterns of rifles at this moment, but will shortly be armed altogether with a magazine-rifle. Cavalry and Field Artillerymen are armed with a repeating carbine. The guns are good cast-steel breech-loaders from the Krupp works. The mountain batteries have steel guns.

As regards discipline and training, the Turkish soldier cannot be compared on the same grounds with his European comrade. As for a discipline founded on feelings of honour, respect, and love of country, the Turks wots not of it. These feelings are, however, compensated for to some extent by a religious fanaticism and a warlike spirit.