CHAPTER XI.

BEETHOVEN--I.

I. GENERAL CHARACTER OF BEETHOVEN'S WORK.

The reader who has attentively followed the story of the long and gradual development of music from the folk-song and peasant dance up to the point we have now reached, cannot but have been impressed by the character of preparation for some supreme achievement of which this development seems to partake throughout. All the laborious steps lead on toward a goal which even in the splendid work of Haydn and Mozart is not quite reached. Haydn crystallizes the form and style of instrumental music; Mozart adds his peculiar aristocratic grace of manner and classical beauty of substance, yet even in his work there remains a certain coldness and conventionality--the body of the art is perfect, but the spiritual passion of modern music as we know it is still lacking. Even during the life-times of these great musicians, however, the supreme genius who was to bring to its perfect flowering the plant they had so carefully tended was preparing for his work. In 1791, when Mozart died, and when Haydn made his first journey to London to produce his Salomon symphonies, Ludwig van Beethoven, born in 1770, was just entering on his young manhood.

In order to understand the character and work of Beethoven, it is necessary constantly to bear in mind the two-sided truth that the greatest men are those who combine the utmost receptivity and teachableness with a perfect self-dependence and fearless initiative. Beethoven, who is equally remarkable for both, could never have done what he did had he lacked either. Had he been merely "original" he could not have securely founded himself on the work of his predecessors, and, therefore, would probably not have surpassed them. Had he been content always to imitate, had he never ventured beyond what was sanctioned by tradition, he would never have inaugurated a new epoch in music. It becomes, therefore, a matter of great interest to trace these opposed but complementary traits of docility and unconventionality, first in his character, and secondly in his music.

In what has been written of Beethoven, his eccentricities have been so dwelt upon that his capacity for laborious study has hardly been appreciated. It is true that he was a restive pupil. He was taught for a while by Haydn, but soon quarreled with him. His teacher in counterpoint, the learned pedagogue Albrechtsberger, said of him: "He will never do anything according to rule; he has learnt nothing." But Beethoven was essentially self-taught; and in his efforts, under his own guidance, to master all the technical difficulties of his art, he showed the most inexhaustible patience and subjected himself to the most tireless labor. Never did the veriest dolt drudge more faithfully at the A, B, C of his art than the "divine Beethoven." We have proof of this in his sketch-books, many of which have been edited and printed by Nottebohm. In them we see him jotting down his ideas, often surprisingly trite in the first instance, and then returning, day after day, to the task of developing them into the perfect themes of his finished compositions. Nothing could be more salutary to those who fancy that musical creation is entirely a matter of "inspiration" than a perusal of these endless pages in which Beethoven slowly and painfully separates the pure metal from the ore of his thought and refines it to complete purity.[36]

Beethoven's wonderful certainty of touch, economy of material, and logical coherence of ideas were doubtless attainable only by this laborious method of working. He learned, by careful imitation, all that the models left by his predecessors could teach him before he ventured to push beyond them. Yet even in his early 'prentice work, like the first two symphonies and the earlier piano sonatas, in which the influence of Haydn and Mozart are constantly evident, there is a vigor of execution, a ruggedness of style, and a depth of feeling, that are all his own. In other words, his strong originality was already coloring all that he did; even when he imitated, it was with a subtle difference.

Later, as his powers developed and self-confidence grew, he became more and more indifferent to tradition, more and more singly bent on following his own genius wherever it might lead him. A strong dramatic instinct began to possess him, showing itself in a love for sudden changes of harmony and rhythm, for unexpected transitions from loud to soft or from soft to loud, and in other such eccentricities. His rhythms became more striking, his melodies broader and more various, his harmonies and modulations so daring and unprecedented that the conservatives of the day held up their hands in horror. His sense of musical structure, of that combining of themes in long movements which is akin to the architect's combination of pillars, arches, windows, buttresses and colonnades in great buildings, became so powerful and unerring that he created works of vaster proportions and more subtle symmetry than had ever been dreamed of before--so great and complex that they could be followed only by the highly trained ear and mind.

Such were the works of his maturity. Later still, as he became more and more thrown in upon himself by poverty, pride, the terrible affliction of deafness, and the failure of his contemporaries to understand him, he came to live entirely in his own ideal world, and his music became more and more markedly individual, and in some cases almost perversely so. His latest works are not thoroughly understood, even to-day, except after the most patient, exhaustive study.

The customary division of Beethoven's artistic life into three periods[37] is based on these internal differences observable in his works. Those of the first period, extending to about 1803, of which the most important are the piano sonatas up to opus 53, the first three piano concertos, the string quartets, opus 18, and the first and second symphonies, show him under the influence of Haydn and Mozart, though already more poignant, impassioned, and forcible than his models.

In the second period, the period of full and vigorous maturity, extending from 1803 to 1813, he throws off all restricting traditions, and stands forth a heroic figure, the like of which music had never seen, and may never see again. The compositions of this decade, among which may be specially mentioned the piano sonatas from the "Waldstein" to opus 90, the fourth and fifth piano concertos, the unique concerto for violin, the string quartets, opus 59 and opus 74, the overtures "Coriolanus" and "Egmont," the opera "Fidelio," the great Mass in C, and above all the six magnificent symphonies from the "Eroica" to the eighth, are among the supreme achievements of human art. They combine the utmost variety of form and style with a perfect unity; they are models of structure for all time; and as to expression, one knows not what to marvel at most, their rugged virility and intensity of passion, their deep pathos and tender sentiment, their moods of effervescent merriment, humor, and whimsical perversity, or their almost superhuman moments of mystical elevation.

The third period, extending from 1813 to Beethoven's death in 1827, is as we have said characterized by an almost excessive individuality, and is difficult to relate to the normal progress of musical art. Nevertheless it contains some of his greatest works--notably the Ninth Symphony, the Mass in D, and the final sonatas and quartets. The detailed study of it falls outside the province of this book.

With this brief and necessarily cursory survey of Beethoven's achievement in its entirety, we may pass on to the examination of a single typical work, hoping in the course of it to make clearer to the student the two main facts about Beethoven on which we have been trying to insist: his indebtedness to his predecessors in the matters of general structure and style, and the indomitable originality by virtue of which all that he does is infused with a novel beauty and an unparalleled profundity of feeling. We shall choose for our first example one of the finest compositions of his first period--the "Pathétique Sonata," for piano, opus 13, taking up in later chapters some typical examples of his more advanced style.

II. ANALYSIS OF A BEETHOVEN SONATA.

EXAMPLE FOR ANALYSIS, No. 17.

_Beethoven: Piano Sonata, Opus 13. First movement._

It will be noted that Beethoven adds to the three traditional sections of the sonata-form an introduction in slow tempo (of which we saw an earlier example in Haydn's "Surprise" Symphony) and a brief coda, based on the main material of the movement, to round out the complete movement satisfactorily. In his later work both of these additional sections came often to figure very prominently, the increased development he gave to them being indeed one of his most important contributions to sonata-form. We shall see in his Fifth Symphony a fine example of his treatment of the coda, which raises it to a dignity equal to that of the other organic sections. The introduction of the Fourth Symphony extends to thirty-eight measures of slow tempo, that of the Seventh Symphony to sixty-two measures, with great variety of treatment.

The general structure of this movement, which is in extended sonata-form, is shown in the following tabular view:

TABULAR VIEW OF STRUCTURE OF FIRST MOVEMENT OF THE PATHÉTIQUE SONATA.

+---------------------------------------------+---------- Sections. | Themes. | Measures. -------------------+---------------------------------------------+---------- Slow Introduction | | 1-10 -------------------+---------------------------------------------+---------- Exposition (A) | First theme, C minor | 11-27 | Transition, based on first theme | 27-50 Duality of | Second theme, E-flat minor | 51-88 Harmony | Codetta or Conclusion section, E-flat major | 89-134 | Consisting of | | Conclusion-theme I | 89-112 | Conclusion-theme II | 113-120 | Reminiscence of theme I | 121-134 -------------------+---------------------------------------------+---------- Development (B) | Introduction-motive | 135-138 Plurality of | Theme I and Introduction-motive treated | 139-196 Harmony | | -------------------+---------------------------------------------+---------- Recapitulation (A) | First theme, C minor | 197-209 | New transition | 209-222 Unity of | Second theme, F minor | 223-254 Harmony | Codetta, C minor | 255-296 -------------------+---------------------------------------------+---------- Coda | | 297-312 | Consisting of | | Introduction motive | 297-300 | First theme, reminiscence | 301-311 -------------------+---------------------------------------------+----------

The motive of the introduction, shown in Figure XLVII, is a deeply expressive bit of melody which at once establishes the mood to which the sonata owes its name of "Pathetic." How incisive and seizing is this very first measure! What a different world it takes us into--a romantic world of personal feeling--from the classic realms of Haydn and Mozart! The emotion thus suggested at the outset becomes deeper, too, as we proceed, first with the higher utterance of the same motive in the second measure, and then with the fragments of it in the third and fourth, urging us on to a climax on the high A-flat. Finally, in the fifth and succeeding measures, the pulsating rhythm of the accompaniment adds a still greater agitation, while the melody climbs ever higher and higher until it reaches the F of measure 9, after which it dies away in preparation for the main theme. The intensity of Beethoven's expression, by which his claim to the title of "romantic" is most surely indicated, could hardly be better shown than by this brief introduction of ten measures.

[Music: score] (_a_) Motive of the Introduction, Pathétique Sonata.

[Music: score] (_b_) Treatment of this motive in the Development.

FIGURE XLVII.

The body of the movement begins energetically, yet sombrely, with the first theme, in minor key and strongly pronounced rhythm. This merges quickly in the transition (27-50), which is neither a bit of empty passage-work as often with Haydn, nor a new melody as with Mozart, but contains constant references to the main theme (35-37, 39-41, 43-45). The second theme is both more lyrical in character and more extended than the first. It is not in the traditional key of the relative major (see Chapters II and III), but oscillates between E-flat minor and D-flat, coming into E-flat major (the relative of C-minor) only as it closes and debouches into the first conclusion theme (89-112). The closing section or codetta is, however, almost entirely in E-flat, and is moreover fairly long and important. It consists of two independent themes and of a reminiscence of the first theme at measures 121-135. A fine instance of melodic germination is found in the first conclusion theme, where the gradually rising melody twice builds itself up into a long phrase of eight measures (93-100, and 105-112) with splendidly sustained effect. The great variety of rhythm embodied in the codetta should be especially noticed.

The development begins with a restatement of the poignant introduction-motive, so managed that it leads into the remote key of E-minor. Now begins, with the resumption of the allegro tempo, a rather short but most interesting treatment of the first theme, continued with an ingenious variant of the introduction-motive (measures 142-143, 148-149: see Figure XLVII (_b_)), followed by the transference of the fragment of the first theme to the bass, where it is thrice repeated, amid constant modulation. Then, in the measure following 169, comes one of those inimitably hushed, mysterious passages so peculiar to Beethoven, through which, like fountains from a sombre pool, rise fragments of the first theme. Then, with a rapidly descending passage, the movement plunges into its recapitulation.

This section the reader will have no difficulty in analyzing for himself, not failing to note the felicity with which a new transition, from first to second themes (209-222), is made to germinate from the last two measures of the main theme. The coda, very brief, contains nothing but a final announcement of fragments of the introduction-motive and a single sentence of the first theme.

EXAMPLE FOR ANALYSIS, No. 18.

_Beethoven: Piano Sonata, opus 13. Second movement._

This slow movement, a beautiful _adagio cantabile_ in Beethoven's tranquilly serious mood, takes on the sectional form of the rondo, consisting of a theme (_A_), an episode (_B_), recurrence of the theme (_A_), a second episode (_C_), second recurrence of the theme (_A_), and brief codetta.

[Music: score] FIGURE XLVIII.

The theme itself, filling only eight measures, but repeated at a higher pitch in the second eight measures, is a fine example of the variety in unity of Beethoven's melodies, secured only after much laborious sketching. It is shown in Figure XLVIII, and should be examined carefully. Almost every measure of it presents a new rhythm, so that there is none of the monotony of those themes which endlessly repeat a single rhythmic figure. (Compare the tunes of primitive savages shown in Chapter I.) Yet the whole melody is so deftly composed that its final impression of unity is perfect. The sequence form which the harmonies of the last four measures take contributes in no small degree to this impression of unity.

The theme being in the key of A-flat, both episodes are planned to give variety of key, the first (B--measures 17-28) being in the relative minor, F-minor, and the second (C--measures 37-50), beginning in A-flat minor and modulating, through E-major, back to the home-key.

With the third entrance of the main theme, the accompaniment takes the more animated rhythm of triplets; and these continue through the brief but delightful codetta (66-73).

EXAMPLE FOR ANALYSIS, No. 19.

_Beethoven: Piano Sonata, opus 13. Third movement._[38]

This movement is an example of rondo form, being, like the Mozart rondo we have already studied, based on the alternation of a chief theme, with sections containing other material. The tabular view on the next page exhibits the complete structure.

The first theme, sprightly and energetic, and recalling in its melodic curve the second theme of the first movement, is in strophic form, with its last half repeated, and the cadence extended for greater emphasis. The sequences in measures 6-7 and 10-11 should be noted. The transition also starts off with a sequence, measures 23-26, corresponding to 19-22. Our old familiar, the device of imitation, also figures in measures 38 and 39. It is interesting to see Beethoven using these tools of the polyphonic style (see Chapters I and III) in a work so far removed from it, and with such ingratiating freshness.

TABULAR VIEW OF THE STRUCTURE OF THE FINALE OF THE PATHÉTIQUE SONATA.

+---------------------------------------------------+-------- Sections.| Themes. |Measures. ---------+---------------------------------------------------+-------- A. | First theme, C-minor | 1-18 | Transition | 19-26 ---------+---------------------------------------------------+-------- B. | Second theme, E-flat major | 26-44 | Closing theme (Codetta) | 44-52 | Transition (on motive from close of second theme) | 52-62 ---------+---------------------------------------------------+-------- A. | First theme, C-minor | 62-79 ---------+---------------------------------------------------+-------- C. | Third theme, A-flat | 80-108 | Florid passage work | 108-121 ---------+---------------------------------------------------+-------- A. | First theme, C-major | 121-135 ---------+---------------------------------------------------+-------- B. | Second theme, C-minor | 135-154 | Closing theme (codetta) | 155-171 ---------+---------------------------------------------------+-------- A. | First theme, C-minor | 172-183 | Codetta, extended | 183-203 | Final suggestions of first theme | 203-211 ---------+---------------------------------------------------+--------

The second theme enters for only eight measures, after which the gay little imitations are again resorted to, and carry us to the re-entrance of the main theme.

The episode (C), based on a new theme in the key of A-flat major, for the sake of the harmonic variety so essential to the middle part of a movement, is again in sequence form, and in strict polyphonic style, first with two voices and later with three. In measures 100-103 we have the theme in the right hand, and set against it in the left a staccato counterpoint in eighth-notes; in the next four measures this scheme is just reversed. A rather florid passage, which may be compared to the cadenza in the rondo from Mozart analyzed in Chapter VI, leads over to the return of the first theme.

[Music: score] FIGURE XLIX.

The appearance of the second theme, on its return, in the key of C-major instead of E-flat major, imparts organic solidity to the movement by its insistence on the tonic key, as in similar cases in the sonata-form (compare again Chapter VI). It is also this time made to germinate into eight additional measures (see Figure XLIX).

In the final section A (172-end) the little motive of the transitions does further duty, and a new figure is introduced in measure 194. After the pause of measures 202-203, we have brief hints, piano, of the main theme, and then with one of the sudden fortissimos Beethoven loves so well, a precipitous downward scale ends the movement with vigor.

III. SUMMARY.

The "Pathétique Sonata" illustrates most vividly the general truths about its composer's first period which we have tried to bring out above. The similarity to the style of Haydn and Mozart is most striking. Not only do we find the general types of structure developed by them applied with great fidelity, but there are many details of style, such as the accompaniment figures and the ornamentation, which recall them. Yet the strings, so to speak, are all tightened, there is not a trace of flabbiness or diffuseness, everything irrelevant is omitted, and the style is at once more varied and more unified than theirs. The vigor and individuality of all the themes is consummate; the organic beauty of such themes as that of the Adagio is supreme. The transitions are notable for their pertinency and derivation from the thematic materials of the movement--there are no empty scales and arpeggios. The developments give the impression of inevitability, of growing from the primary motives as naturally as plants grow from their seeds. Contrast in rhythm, in melody, in harmony, and in style (as exemplified in the use of polyphonic style in the finale) abounds. There is never a dull moment, yet interest is never secured at the expense of unity. Above all, the virility, profundity, and earnestness of the expression, surprise us; there is here none of the detachment, the cool remoteness, of classic art; every note throbs with personal feeling--music has left the innocence and transparent gaiety of childhood behind it, and begun to speak with the deeper and more moving, if less serene, accents of maturity.

In the next chapters we shall trace this progress further.

SUGGESTIONS FOR COLLATERAL READING.

_E. Dickinson: "The Study of the History of Music," Chapter XXVI. C. H. H. Parry: "The Evolution of the Art of Music," Chapter XII. D. G. Mason: "Beethoven and His Forerunners," Chapters VII, VIII, and IX._

FOOTNOTES:

[36] See for quotations from the sketch-books, Mason's "Beethoven and His Forerunners," pp. 304-314. Several of the complete sketch-books, edited by Nottebohm, are published by Breitkopf and Härtel.

[37] See Von Lenz's "Beethoven et ses trois styles."

[38] In numbering the measures, begin with the first (partial) measure, even though it is incomplete.