CHAPTER III.

THE POLYPHONIC MUSIC OF BACH.

We have seen in the last chapter some typical examples of folk-songs, which have served to give us an impression of folk-music in general, since it always conforms, in all essentials, to the type they illustrate. Folk-music is generally simple and unsophisticated in expression; it is generally cast in short and obvious forms; and it generally consists of a single melody, either sung alone or accompanied, on some primitive instrument, by a few of the commonest chords.

The prominence given to a single melody by music of this type, however, makes it unsuitable for groups of different voices, such as a vocal quartet or a chorus; and therefore when musicians began to pay attention to music intended for church use they had to work out a different style, in which several parts, sung by the various voices, could be strongly individualized. This led to what is called the "polyphonic," or "many-voiced" style. Another reason why the ecclesiastical style always remained unlike the secular was that the learned church musicians disdained any use of those methods which grew up in connection with folk-songs and dances, considering them profane or vulgar. Had they been willing to study them, they might have added much vitality to church music; but they maintained an attitude of aloofness and of contempt for the popular music.

I. WHAT IS "POLYPHONY?"

The peculiarity of the polyphonic style is that that portion of the music which accompanies the chief melody is no longer a series of chords as in folk-music, but a tissue of secondary melodies, like the chief one, and hardly less important. (This arises, as we have just suggested, from the necessity of giving each of the four voices or groups of voices,--soprano, alto, tenor, and bass,--something individual and interesting to do.) The difference between the two styles is apparent even to the eye, on the printed page. A folk-song, or any other piece in "homophonic" or "one-voiced" style, has the characteristic appearance of a line of notes on top (the melody), with groups of other notes hanging down from it here and there, like clothes from a clothes line (the accompaniment). A Bach fugue, in print, presents the appearance of four (or more) interlacing lines of notes. (See Figure IX.)

[Music: score] (_a_) Beginning of "Polly Oliver."

While the dawn on the mountain was mist - y and grey,

[Music: score] (_b_) Passage from Bach Fugue in G-minor "Well-Tempered Clavichord," Book I.

FIGURE IX. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN "HOMOPHONIC" AND "POLYPHONIC" STYLE.

Historically speaking, the first great culmination of the polyphonic style is found in the ecclesiastical choruses of Palestrina (1528-1594); but it was not until somewhat later that this style was applied to instrumental music. In the inventions, canons, preludes, toccatas, and fugues of Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750), we get the first great examples of polyphony as applied, not to merely ecclesiastical music, but to music which by its secular character and its variety of emotional expression is universal in scope.

II. AN INVENTION BY BACH.

Such is the ingenuity and the perfection of detail in Bach's works in the polyphonic style that a life-time might be spent in studying them. They have that delicacy of inner adjustment more usually found in the works of nature than in those of man; their melodies grow out of their motive germs as plants put forth leaves and flowers; their separate voices fit into one another like the crystals in a bit of quartz; and the whole fabric of the music stands on its elemental harmonies as solidly as the mountains on their granite bases. We can hope to see as little of this august country of Bach's mind by analyzing a few pieces as a man may see of the hills and moors in a day's excursion--but, nevertheless, a beginning must be made.

The essential features of this music may be seen in even so simple a piece as the Invention in F-major, number 7, in the two-voiced inventions, though it is written for only two voices and is but thirty-four measures long.

EXAMPLE FOR ANALYSIS, No. 1.

_Bach: Two-voice Invention No. VIII., in F-Major._

The subject or theme of this invention is a melody of two measures' length, first given out by the soprano, and consists of two motives or characteristic figures, one in eighth-notes, staccato, making a series of leaps, thus:

[Music: score]

and one a graceful descending run in sixteenth-notes, thus

[Music: score]

Notice how charmingly the staccato and the legato are contrasted in these motives.

The entire invention is made out of this subject by means of those methods of varied repetition discussed in Chapter I., especially "imitation" and "transposition." For example, the lower voice, which we will call the bass, "imitates," almost exactly, through the first eleven measures, what the soprano says a measure before it. On the other hand, in measure 12 the bass starts the ball a-rolling by giving the subject (this time in the key of C), and the soprano takes its turn at imitating. Then, from measure 29 to the end, it is again the soprano which leads and the bass which imitates. The student should trace out these imitations in detail, admiring the skill with which they are made always harmonious.

There are many instances of transposition also, most of them carried out so systematically that they form what musicians call "sequences."

A sequence is a series of transpositions of a motive, shifting it in pitch either upward or downward, and carried out systematically through several repetitions. Examples: measures 4, 5, and 6, transposition of the motive in soprano, three repetitions; measures 21, 22, 23, transposition of motives of both voices, three repetitions; measures 24, 25, transposition of motives of both voices, two repetitions. The second of these sequences is shown in Figure X.

It will be noted what a strong sense of regular, orderly progress these sequences impart to the melodies.

It is interesting to see that the same general scheme of keys is embodied in this invention that we have observed in folk-songs: i. e., the modulation to the "dominant" in the middle (measure 12), and the return at the end to the original key. This divides the piece into two unequal halves, the first making an excursion away from the home key, the second returning home--much as the King of France, with twenty thousand men, marched up the hill and then marched down again. Such a two-part structure is observable in thousands of short pieces, and is called by musicians "binary form."

[Music: score] FIGURE X. "Sequence" from Bach's Invention in F-Major.

The difference in texture between this piece and any folk-song or dance will best be appreciated by playing over the bass part alone, when it will be seen that, far from being mere "filling" or accompaniment, it is a delightful melody in itself, almost as interesting as its more prominent companion. Indeed, in the whole invention there are only two tones (the C and the A in the final chord) which are not melodically necessary. Such is the splendid economy and clearness of Bach's musical thinking.

Before going further, the reader should examine for himself several typical inventions, as, for example, No. I, in C-major; No. II, in C-minor; No. X, in G-major, and No. XIII, in A-minor, in this set by Bach, noting in each case: (1) the individuality of the motives used, (2) the imitations from voice to voice, (3) the sequences, (4) the modulations, (5) the polyphonic character, as evidenced by the self-sufficiency and melodic interest of the bass, and (6) the structural division of the entire invention into more or less distinct sections.

III. A FUGUE BY BACH.

The same general method of composing that is exemplified in the inventions we see applied on a larger scale in the fugues of Bach.

The definition of a fugue given by some wag--"a piece of music in which one voice after another comes in, and one listener after another goes out"--is true only when the listeners are uneducated. For a trained ear there is no keener pleasure than following the windings of a well written fugue. It is, at the same time, true that a fugue presents especial difficulties to the ear, because of its intricately interwoven melodies. In a folk-song there is not only but one melody, with nothing to distract the attention from it, but it is composed in definite phrases of equal length, like the lines in poetry, with a pause at the end of each, in which the mind of the listener can take breath, so to speak, and rest a moment before renewing attention. Not so in the fugue, where the bits of tune occur all through the whole range of the music, are of varying lengths and character, and overlap in such a way that there are few if any moments of complete rest for the attention. Perhaps this is the chief reason why fugues have the reputation of being "dry."

As is suggested by the derivation of the word "fugue," from the Latin "fuga," a flight, the characteristic peculiarity of the form is the entrance, one after another, of the several voices, which thus seem to pursue or chase one another, to go through a sort of musical game of "tag," in which first one and then another is "It." First one voice begins with the "subject" of the fugue, in the "tonic" key (key in which the piece is written). Next enters a second voice, "imitating" the first, but presenting the subject not in the "tonic," but in the "dominant" key. Then a third, once more in the tonic, and finally the fourth, again in the dominant. After these entrances all four voices proceed to play with the subject, transposing it in all sorts of ingenious ways, and straying off at times into episodes, generally in "sequence" form, but finally coming back, towards the end of the fugue, with renewed energy to the subject itself. All this may be seen in such an example as the Fugue in C-minor in Bach's "Well-Tempered Clavichord."

EXAMPLE FOR ANALYSIS, No. 2.

_Bach: Fugue No. 2, C-minor, in three voices. "Well-Tempered Clavichord."_ Book 1.[7]

Like all the fugues in Bach's "Well-Tempered Clavichord," this fugue is preceded by a prelude, in free style, like a series of embroideries on chords, intended to prepare the nearer for the more active musical enjoyment of the fugue to come. Parry, in the "Oxford History of Music," says of the Prelude of Bach and Handel: "It might be a simple series of harmonies such as a player might extemporize before beginning the Suite or the Fugue, [such is the case in the present prelude]; or, its theme might be treated in a continuous consistently homogeneous movement unrestricted as to length, but never losing sight of the subject" ... etc.

A fugal subject is usually longer and more pretentious than an invention subject, and more nearly approaches what we should call a complete melody. It may contain several motives. Moreover, while the second voice is "answering" the subject, the first voice continues with further melody, and if this is of definite, individual character it may easily assume almost as great importance as the subject itself, in which case we may give it the name of "counter-subject." In Figure XI the subject and counter-subject of this fugue are shown. The long brackets show subject and counter-subject; the short brackets show the three chief motives, marked _a_, _b_, and _c_. The simplicity of the melodic material is noticeable. Motive _a_, which, with its three repetitions, forms most of the subject, consists of five tones, in a charming and unforgettable rhythm of two shorts and three longs. Motive _b_ is simply a descending scale, in equal short notes. Motive _c_ is four equal long notes. Play the subject and counter-subject through separately, several times, and get them well "by heart" before going farther.

This fugue is a wonderful example of what a master-composer can make out of simple materials; the whole piece is built from these three motives. Our analysis may conveniently be made in tabular form, the student being expected to trace out the development for himself, measure by measure.

[Music: score]

[Music: score]

FIGURE XI. SUBJECT AND COUNTER-SUBJECT OF BACH'S FUGUE IN C-MINOR (WELL-TEMPERED CLAVICHORD)

TABLE OF THEMATIC TREATMENT OF FUGUE IN C-MINOR

_Measures._ 1- 2 Subject in Alto. 3- 4 Subject "answered" in Soprano ("imitation"), counter-subject in Alto. 5- 6 Episode 1: Motive _a_ prominent in Soprano. 7- 8 Subject in Bass, counter-subject in Soprano, fragments of motive _c_ in Alto. 9-10 Episode 2: Motive _a_ tossed between Soprano and Alto, motive _b_ in Bass. 11-12 Subject, in key of E-flat major, in Soprano, counter-subject in Bass. 13-14 Episode 3: Motive _b_ in Soprano, motive _c_ in other two voices. 15-16 Subject in Alto, counter-subject in Soprano, motive _c_ in Bass. 17-19 Episode 4: Motives _a_ and _b_ variously distributed between all three voices. 20-21 Subject in Soprano, in tonic key again, counter-subject in Alto, motive _c_ in Bass, 22-25 Episode 5: Motives _a_ and _b_ in all voices. 26-28 Climax: Subject in Bass, motives _b_ and _c_ in other voices. 29-31 Coda: Subject in Soprano.

Note that all the episodes take the form of _sequences_, as, for example, in the following instance (measures 9-10):

[Music: score] FIGURE XIa.

A SEQUENCE FROM BACH'S FUGUE IN C-MINOR.

The general form of this fugue illustrates the same principles of modulation, and of restatement of subject after contrast, that we noticed in the folk-songs and in the invention. This may be tabulated thus:

TABLE SHOWING STRUCTURE OF FUGUE IN C-MINOR.

A. | B. | A. STATEMENT. | CONTRAST. | RESTATEMENT. Measures 1-10 in | Measures 11-19 in various | Measures 20-31 key of C-minor. | keys, beginning with E-flat.| in C-minor.

The modulation in this case, however, is not to the "dominant" key, but to what is called the "relative major" key, as is usual in pieces written in minor keys, (see the folk-song, "Sister Fair," in Chapter II), the reason being that the relative major affords the most natural contrast to a minor key, just as the dominant affords the most natural contrast to a major key.

The conclusion is emphasized by the finely rugged statement of the subject in Bass at measure 26.

The treatment of this fugue, for all its consummate skill, is comparatively simple. It does not employ the more subtle devices often employed in fugues, of which may be mentioned the following:

1. "Inversion:" The subject turned upside down, while retaining its identity by means of its rhythm.

[Music: score] Original Subject.

[Music: score] Inversion.

FIGURE XII. THE DEVICE OF "INVERSION."

[Music: score] Original Subject.

[Music: score] Augmentation.

[Music: score] Original Subject.

[Music: score] Diminution.

FIGURE XIII. THE DEVICES OF "AUGMENTATION" AND "DIMINUTION."

2. "Augmentation and Diminution:" The length of the notes doubled or halved, while their _relative_ length, or rhythm, is carefully maintained. (Figure XIII.)

3. "Shifted rhythm:"[8] The subject shifted as regards its position in the measure, so that all the accents fall differently.

[Music: score] Original Subject.

[Music: score] Shifted.

FIGURE XIV. DEVICE OF "SHIFTED RHYTHM."

4. "Stretto:" The imitation of the subject by a second voice occurring prematurely, before the first voice has completed the subject, frequently with highly dramatic effect. (_b_) in Figure IX is an example of stretto.

These devices are mentioned here not only because they occur in many fugues, but because they are used in the symphonic music of Mozart and Beethoven, as we shall later have occasion to see.

IV. GENERAL QUALITIES OF BACH'S WORK.

Perhaps the most exacting of all tests applicable to music is the test of economy. Are there superfluous tones that do not enrich the harmony? Are there unnecessary subjects not needed to fill the scheme of design? If so, no matter how beautiful the music, it is defective as art. Bach bears this test victoriously. There is not a note of his writing which one would willingly sacrifice. There is not a melody that is not needed. Each subject is not merely introduced and dismissed, but is developed to the utmost, so that all that was implicit in its germ becomes explicit in its final form. There is no confusion of the outline, no overcrowding of the canvas, no blotchiness in the color. As Giotto proved his supremacy among draughtsmen by the apparently simple but really enormously difficult feat of drawing a complete, perfect circle with one stroke of the pencil, so Bach constantly proves his supremacy among musicians by making two voices satisfy the ear like an orchestra. And this purity of texture is quite compatible with the utmost richness. Indeed, Bach's polyphonic scores are inimitably rich, since each voice sings its own melody, and the melodies all interplay harmoniously like the lines of a well-composed picture. Those who call Bach's fugues dry make an astonishing confession of their own insensibility or crudity of taste. Bach's melodies are not, to be sure, like "Annie Laurie" or "Home, Sweet Home." But neither is daylight like candle light; yet we do not call it darkness because it is diffused through all the atmosphere instead of concentrated in a single visible ray.

Bach's daring has been the subject of the endless admiration of students. Especially in the matter of harmony he did things in the eighteenth century, and entirely on his own responsibility, that whole schools of composers band together with a sense of revolutionary courage to do in the twentieth. He is truly one of the most modern of composers, and will always remain so. Composers who might have been his grandsons are now antiquated, while he is always contemporary with the best musical thought. Brahms, irritated at Rubinstein's persistent patronizing of "Papa Haydn" in his book, "A Conversation on Music," remarked in his dry way: "Rubinstein will soon be Great-grandfather Rubinstein, but Haydn will then be still Papa Haydn." The same might be said even more truly of Bach, who will always be the father of musicians.

Another way in which Bach is modern is in the variety of his musical expression. It is not only that his range of different species of works is so great, reaching from the ecstatically tender and exalted religious choral compositions, such as cantatas, motets, oratorios, and passions, through the grand and monumental organ toccatas and fugues, to the intimate, colloquial suites and sonatas for orchestra and for clavichord; it is even more wonderful that in a single work, such as the "Well-Tempered Clavichord," he knows how to sound the whole gamut of human feeling, from the deep and sombre passions of the soul to the homely gaiety or bantering humor of an idle moment.[9] Bach might have boasted, had it been in his nature to boast, that in this work he had not only written in every key known to musicians, but in every mood known to men. It is the musical "Comédie Humaine."

Bach lived quietly and in almost complete obscurity; for the last quarter-century of his life he held a post as teacher of music and church-music director in Leipsic.

He travelled little, sought no worldly fame, took no pains to secure performances of his works, and, above all, made no compromise with the popular taste of his day. He produced his great compositions, one after another, in the regular day's work, for performance in his church or by local orchestras and players. He never pined for a recognition that in the nature of things he could not have; he wrote the music that seemed good to him, and thought that his responsibility ended there, and that his reward lay there. The cynic who said "Every man has his price" was evidently not acquainted with the life of Bach. Steadily ignoring those temptations to prostitute his genius for the public's pleasure, which so materially affected the life course of his great contemporary Handel, he followed his own ideals with an undivided mind. As always happens in such cases, since it takes decades for the world to comprehend a sincere individual, or even centuries if his individuality is deep and unique, he was not appreciated in his life-time, nor for many years after his death.

Indeed, he is not appreciated now, for a man can be appreciated only by his equals. But we have at last got an inkling of the treasure that still lies hidden away in Bach; and while Handel and the other idols of the age sound daily more thin and archaic, Bach grows ever richer as the understanding we bring to him increases, and still holds out his promise of novel and perennial artistic delights.

SUGGESTIONS FOR COLLATERAL READING.

_W. R. Spalding: "Tonal Counterpoint." Edward Dickinson: "Study of the History of Music," Chapter XX. C. H. H. Parry: "Evolution of the Art of Music," Chapter VIII._

FOOTNOTES:

[7] Number the measures, and call the voices soprano, alto, and bass.

[8] The reader should examine the example of shifted rhythm given in the second chapter in dealing with the German song, "Sister Fair."

[9] In Book I, for example, Fugue II is as light and delicate as XII is serious and earnest; XVI is pathetic, XVII vigorous and rugged, XVIII thoughtful and mystical, etc.