CHAPTER V.

SOUTHERN ASIA.

I. PERSIA.

The Viceroy of India, in his speech closing the Imperial Legislative Council on March 24, in which he reviewed briefly foreign affairs in connexion with India, was able to speak of the work of the Swedish officers and the gendarmerie organised by them as eminently successful. The force was employed during the winter in patrolling the roads, and it dealt with the robber bands which infested them. The improvement in the returns of British and Indian trade in Southern Persia was the best evidence of the efficiency of the work of the gendarmerie. Another force dealt with the situation on the trade route between Bunder Abbas and Kerman, and, although it had some serious engagements with the Perso-Baluchi tribes, there was every reason for confidence in its ability to establish order in the near future.

The young Shah Sultan Ahmad Shah, now a youth of sixteen, was crowned with considerable ceremony at Teheran in July, and took the oath of fidelity to the Constitution before the Mejliss. He was only a child of eleven when his father, Mahomed Ali, was driven into exile, and no opinion can yet be formed of his character or abilities.

When Turkey joined in the war against England and her Allies the Persian Government, on November 4, issued a Proclamation declaring a strict neutrality. This however did not prevent a Turkish force from advancing on Tabriz during the last days of the year. The local Persian authorities were not in a position to offer any resistance; they could merely record a formal protest, to which the Turks replied that they would evacuate Persian territory when the Russians did so.

II. THE PERSIAN GULF AND BALUCHISTAN.

An agreement was concluded with the French Government by which France recognised the new arms traffic regulations drawn up by the late Sultan of Muscat at the instance of the British Government, and abandons the privileges and immunities secured by ancient treaties. It is hoped that this will effectually stop gun-running on the Mekran coast.

III. AFGHANISTAN.

The relations between the Government of India and His Majesty the Amir continued to be cordial.

Representations had to be made regarding serious outrages on the Frontier by residents of Afghanistan and by outlaws from British territory who had taken refuge in Khost. These representations were met by the Amir in the most friendly spirit, and he issued stringent orders to his officers on the Frontier to deal severely with all offenders. It was reported that the Khost outlaws implicated had been arrested and sent to Kabul for trial.

In his reply to the Viceroy's letter, announcing the outbreak of hostilities between Great Britain and Turkey, the Amir expressed his deep regret at the step taken by the Turkish Government, and declared his firm intention to maintain a strict neutrality, and added that he had issued a proclamation enjoining the same on all his subjects.

IV. NORTH-WEST FRONTIER.

Apart from the raids from Afghan territory already mentioned, the Frontier remained quiet with two exceptions. An outrage by the Utman Khels in the north of the Peshawar District led to a blockade of the tribe, which produced the desired effect.

There were two serious raids by the Bunerwals in which eight British subjects were killed and considerable property taken. On February 23 a column was sent to punish the villages mainly at fault. In spite of the most trying conditions of weather and roads the operations were carried out most successfully. The force met with little serious opposition, and returned without loss after inflicting exemplary punishment on the offending villages.

V. BRITISH INDIA.

(1) FINANCE.

At the meeting of the Imperial Legislative Council on March 2 Sir William Meyer, the new Financial Member, reviewed at length the annual Statement which had been presented a few days previously. After paying a warm tribute to his predecessor, Sir Guy Fleetwood Wilson, he pointed out that, owing to the disappearance of the Chinese opium revenue and other causes, the prosperity budgets and large surpluses which had marked the latter's term of office, and had enabled the Imperial Government to distribute doles to the Provincial Governments, could no longer be looked for. It was, however, a matter for congratulation that the ordinary revenue had been sufficient to provide for the necessary expenses of the Government without imposing additional taxation.

Revised Estimate, 1913-14.--The Budget Estimate, given in millions sterling with decimal points, showed Revenue, Imperial 53.044, Provincial 29.280, Total 82.324; Expenditure, Imperial 51.718, Provincial 32.193, Total 83.911. The result was thus an Imperial surplus of 1.326, and a Provincial deficit of 2.913, or a total excess of Expenditure over Revenue of 1.587. A Provincial deficit is, however, not a real deficit; it is met by the Local Governments drawing on the large balances already in hand.

The figures of the Revised Estimate were: Revenue, Imperial 53.619, Provincial 30.643, Total 84.262; Expenditure, Imperial 52.291, Provincial 31.384, Total 83.675, giving an Imperial surplus of 1.328 and a Provincial deficit of ·741, or a total surplus of ·587. The Imperial surplus was thus almost exactly the same as that entered in the Budget; the decrease in the Provincial deficit was due partly to underspending and partly to an improvement in the sources of revenue allotted to Provincial Governments.

On the Revenue side certain sub-heads showed a material difference between the Budget and the Revised Estimate. Under Customs there was an improvement of 492,000_l._, reflecting the prosperous conditions which had prevailed over the greater part of the country. Busy trade in the early part of the year necessitated an addition to the currency and the seigniorage on the consequent coinage amounted to 136,000_l._; an increase in small coinage likely to be required in the famine districts raised the total improvement under Mint to 164,000_l._ The net receipts from Railways were expected to be 104,000_l._ less than the Budget Estimate, owing to dull trade in the closing months of 1913, increased expenditure on rolling stock, and the repair of damage to lines. There was a falling off of 276,000_l._ in Land Revenue, due to the failure of the kharif crop in the United Provinces and adjacent areas and the consequent remissions or suspensions. The greater demand for canal water in the United Provinces, and the revision of rates in parts of the Punjab, produced an increase of 149,000_l._ under Irrigation. There was an improvement of 156,000_l._ in the Income Tax Receipts, chiefly due to the large profits realised by banks and industrial concerns in Calcutta and Bombay in the preceding year. Miscellaneous receipts gave an increase of 127,000_l._ In the Excise Revenue there was an increase of 454,000_l._, owing to general prosperity, especially in Madras and Bombay. The income from Forests was expected to be better by 177,000_l._

Reviewing the Revenue as a whole, the Financial Member was of opinion that it showed satisfactory progress. Excluding opium altogether, the receipts for 1912-13 were 81,738,000_l._, whilst for 1913-14 they were expected to be 82,656,000_l._

The Imperial Expenditure was expected to be 573,000_l._ in excess of the Budget Estimate, whilst the Provincial Expenditure would be 809,000_l._ less. The Military Charges accounted for 392,000_l._ of the Imperial increase; the main cause of this was the rise in prices of food and fodder.

Budget Estimate for 1914-15.--The figures were: Revenue, Imperial 54.261, Provincial 30.772, Total 85.033; Expenditure, Imperial 52.981, Provincial 33.981, Total 86.962. The result anticipated was thus an Imperial surplus of 1.280 and a Provincial deficit of 3.209, or on the total account a deficit of 1.929.

The total Revenue given above was 750,000_l._ in excess of that shown in the Revised Estimate, 1913-14. The heads under which the chief improvements were expected were Land Revenue, Opium, Post Office, Stamps, and Excise, whilst a falling off was allowed for under Customs, and in the net receipts from Railways owing to continued increase in the working expenses. The aggregate improvement budgeted for amounted to 771,000_l._, of which the Imperial share would be 642,000_l._ and the share of the Provincial Governments 129,000_l._

Although the Expenditure provided for showed a total increase of 3,287,000_l._ the increase in the Imperial Expenditure was only 690,000_l._ The increase under military charges, due mainly to continued rise in the price of food and fodder and to the provision for the extra pay of officers in British regiments granted by the Home Government, accounted for 487,000_l._ of this total. The estimated Imperial surplus of 1,280,000_l._ was not more than should be held in reserve as a margin of safety to meet unforeseen calls, but it was proposed to make grants from it to Local Governments amounting to 240,000_l._ in all, of which 100,000_l._ would be for the improvement of communications in Burma, and 100,000_l._ for Education and Sanitation.

Ways and Means.--The capital requirements for 1914-15 were estimated at 12,000,000_l._ for railways, 1,200,000_l._ for irrigation, 700,000_l._ for Delhi, 700,000_l._ for repayment of India Bonds, 3,200,000_l._ for outlay from Provincial balances, and 100,000_l._ for Local Loans, Imperial and Provincial--giving a total of practically 18,000,000_l._

The assets by which these requirements would be met were 4,600,000_l._ to be taken from balances, 1,300,000_l._ forming the Imperial surplus, 3,300,000_l._ representing the Rupee loan of 5 crores, 6,200,000_l._ sterling borrowings, 1,800,000_l._ of unfunded debt, 700,000_l._ from famine insurance allotment and minor items. Total 17,900,000_l._

The Rupee loan of 5 crores was the largest hitherto raised in India, but it was warranted by the success which had attended the last loan, and by the fact that the price of rupee paper in England stood higher than that of the sterling loan.

Sir William Meyer gave a full account of the proceedings of the Imperial Delhi Committee constituted on April 1, 1913, and the progress that had been made in the work on the new capital. The question of expense was dealt with in great detail by the Viceroy in his speech closing the session on March 24. His Excellency admitted frankly that the estimate of 4,000,000_l._, mentioned in the Government of India's despatch of August 25, 1911, to the Secretary of State, was based on insufficient data. A most careful and complete estimate had now been framed by the Delhi Committee and was under the consideration of the Government of India. Subject to modifications that might be made, the total cost amounted to 5,113,620_l._, to this another million should be added to provide for contingencies and unforeseen expenditure. The strictest economy and supervision would be exercised over all branches of the work, and some returns might be expected. The Government of India was of opinion that, even if the estimate were accepted in full, the total cost of the new capital would not exceed 6,000,000_l._ This would be spread over a period of twelve years from the commencement of the work in 1912.

In presenting the Budget in its final form on March 21, the Financial Member stated that the changes in the figures of the Statement originally laid before the Council were small and unimportant. The net result in the Revised Estimate of 1913-14 was to raise the Imperial surplus by 159,000_l._ and to reduce the Provincial deficit by 139,000_l._

As regards the Budget for 1914-15, it was now expected that the Imperial surplus would be less than the original Estimate by 24,000_l._, and that there would be a small reduction in the Provincial deficit.

Under Ways and Means there was no material change in the original figures. It was calculated that on March 31, 1915, the cash balances would stand at twelve and one-third million pounds sterling in the Indian and at about five millions in the Home Treasury.

(2) FAMINE.

In reviewing the state of the area affected by famine at the close of 1913 it was observed that, although there was a considerable amount of distress, the stage of actual famine had hardly been reached, but, if the winter rains failed, the prospect would be very serious. They did fail to a very great extent, and the little rain that fell only slightly mitigated the existing distress. In his speech in the Legislative Council on March 24 the Viceroy observed that the state of things, though serious, was not nearly so bad as in the famine of 1907-8. There were also other circumstances which tended considerably to improve the situation. The people had enjoyed a series of good harvests in previous years and in the present year there was a prospect of an excellent spring harvest in the Punjab. Past experience had enabled the Government to deal with famines far more efficiently, suspensions and remissions of land revenue had been promptly and generously granted, advances to agriculturists had been made on a large scale, arrangements had been carried out for securing a supply of fodder, and the railway rates for its carriage had been reduced. There had also been a great improvement in the spirit of the people themselves; they were more hopeful and self-reliant, and more ready to move to other districts in search of work. There was still a large class of the population which had to be supported by gratuitous relief, but the number seeking employment on relief works was far less than in previous famines.

At the end of July the number of persons employed on relief works was 4,684, whilst 102,338 were receiving gratuitous relief. The monsoon of 1914 was, on the whole, good, and the condition of the famine districts soon became the same as that of the rest of India, throughout the whole of which prices continued high till the close of the year, causing considerable distress amongst the poorer classes.

(3) PLAGUE.

As was to be anticipated from the returns for the last quarter of 1913 the plague statistics showed a considerable increase. The total number of deaths from October 1, 1913, to September 30, 1914, was 264,760, against a total of 181,668 for the corresponding months of 1912-13. The highest monthly total was 57,577 in March, the lowest 1,439 in July.

(4) BRITISH INDIA--GENERAL.

In closing the Legislative Session on March 24 the Viceroy was able to announce that a satisfactory settlement of the very intricate question of the treatment of Indians in South Africa had been reached, and that a telegram had that day been received from General Smuts that a Bill would be introduced into the Union Parliament to give effect to the report of the Commission. Unfortunately an equally satisfactory statement cannot be made regarding Canada and British Columbia. Here the grievance is not the manner in which Indians are treated within the Colony, but the almost absolute refusal to admit them at all. Although this attitude of the Colonies was perfectly well known, a steamer, the _Komagata Maru_, was chartered by certain Indian leaders, some of whom were known to be agitators and are believed to have been acting under German influence, for the conveyance of some 300 Indians, mostly Sikhs, to Vancouver. They were not allowed to enter the Colony (May 21), and it was with great difficulty that they were persuaded to re-embark and return to India. On the arrival of the _Komagata Maru_ at Budge Budge, a station on the Hooghly near Calcutta, they were met by officers deputed to arrange for their dispatch by special trains direct to their homes at Government expense. The first train, with about sixty passengers, was despatched quietly, but, whilst the second train was being prepared, the men who were to be sent off suddenly fired on the police with revolvers which they had concealed, and one European officer was killed and three or four others wounded. The police were compelled to fire on the rioters, of whom sixteen were killed (Oct. 2).

Last year reference was made to the existence of widespread conspiracies (A.R., 1913, p. 400) the object of which was the overthrow of British power in India by any possible means, including murder and outrages of all kinds. Early in 1914 the Punjab police succeeded in discovering one of the most important of these. Eleven men were placed on their trial on a charge of conspiracy to commit murder, before a special court of sessions at Delhi, which began its proceedings in May. These lasted for three and a half months and resulted in three of the accused being sentenced to death and four to transportation for life, whilst four were acquitted. It is impossible to go fully into the details of the case, but a general outline of it affords an excellent illustration of the manner in which the work of sedition is carried on in India and who are engaged in it. In 1904-5 one Har Dayal, a resident of Delhi and a student of great promise in the Punjab University, was sent to St. John's College, Oxford, on a State scholarship of 200_l._ a year. He visited India in 1906 and delivered lectures, chiefly to students at Lahore, on the supposed needs of India. In 1908 he resigned his scholarship, and, returning to India, commenced a further course of lectures, openly advocating sedition, but not yet murder. Not long afterwards he left for America, where he is believed to have remained, making over his work to Amir Chand, accused No. 1, who carried it on zealously. In October, 1912, a Committee was formed at Lahore with the object of promoting anarchy on the lines followed in Bengal and the United Provinces, namely the distribution of inflammatory literature, teaching the art of manufacturing bombs, planning outrages, and engaging tools to commit them. If the attempt on the life of the Viceroy on December 23, 1912, was not actually planned by these conspirators they certainly knew who were engaged in it. Leaflets approving it were issued by them and distributed broadcast, and were even posted up in the colleges at Lahore. On May 17, 1913, a bomb was exploded in the Lawrence Gardens, Lahore, with the intention of killing Europeans, but, owing to the failure of the courage of the man engaged, the only result was the death of an Indian orderly. Various other outrages were planned, but miscarried from one cause or another. In October, 1913, there was a fresh outburst of activity and publication of leaflets. It was the search for these that led to the discoveries which resulted in the eleven accused being brought to trial. Most of them were young men who had received their education in Government schools and colleges, and some of them had obtained good posts in the public service. Although these conspiracies may be described as widespread, they were so only in the sense that they were carried on by agents in all parts of India. The men who actually took part in them were confined almost entirely to the class already mentioned. The great mass of the people of India are too much occupied with the task of providing themselves with their daily bread to take any interest in general politics.

The appeal of Mr. Channing Arnold, editor and proprietor of the _Burma Critic_, from his conviction by the Chief Court of Lower Burma in 1912 was dismissed on April 7 by the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council (A.R., 1912, p. 403). Their Lordships were of opinion that there was no misdirection on any point of law in the Judge's charge and that the jury had sufficient evidence to justify their findings on the question of fact.

The expectation of Germany that the entrance of Turkey into a war with a great Power in Europe would be the signal for a revolutionary outbreak in India was completely falsified. Instead of an outbreak of disloyalty there was one of fervent loyalty. Throughout the whole country from all races and all classes there came professions of attachment to the Government and offers of support of every kind (p. 200). At the commencement of the war the Indian Government was able to send to Europe two complete Divisions of British and Indian troops, and these were followed a little later by the despatch of a third Division. This sending of Indian troops to fight side by side with their British comrades in a great European War aroused enthusiasm not only in the Indian Army, but also in the country generally.

The second expectation of Germany that, when they had succeeded in dragging Turkey into the war as their ally, there would be an outbreak of religious fanaticism throughout the world of Islam in general and of India in particular, was even more ill-founded than their expectation of a general Indian revolt. As soon as it was clear that Turkey was joining Germany the Viceroy (Oct. 31) issued a note pointing out the true facts of the case, how no interests of Islam were involved, and how completely England, France, and Russia had assured Turkey that, if she maintained her neutrality, her independence and integrity would be upheld at the close of the war. The truth of this was at once apparent to all educated Mohamedans; they knew well not only that no interests of Islam were threatened, but also that the Sultan himself was not a free agent. The Government of Turkey was really in the hands of the Young Turks, men hated and despised by all true believers, and who were truly described by Mr. Asquith in the House of Commons as possessing all the vices and none of the virtues of the old Turkish official class. The ruling Mohamedan Chiefs, from the Nizam to those of the Protected Malay States, issued proclamations pointing out to their subjects the true facts, and enjoining loyalty to the British Government as a thing required by the precepts of their religion and by their own true interests. Similar action was taken by all the important Mohamedan associations, and by leading Mohamedan gentlemen, including the Agha Khan.

The first act of any importance in the war between England and Turkey east of Suez was a visit by H.M.S. _Minerva_ to Akaba, a fortified town at the head of the gulf of that name, where the Turks were collecting troops and supplies for an expedition against Egypt. The town was occupied, the fortifications were destroyed, and the Turkish force captured or dispersed with little loss.

A more serious operation was carried out in November by an expeditionary force both naval and military sent from India to the head of the Persian Gulf. The Turkish fort at Fao, on the right bank of the Shatt-el-Arab, was silenced on November 8, and after minor successes on the 11th and 15th, a decisive battle was fought on the 17th. The Turkish troops, some 4,000 in number, were found in an entrenched position which could only be attacked by an advance in the open. This was made and the position captured with some guns and a large supply of ammunition and stores. The British loss was five officers killed and fifteen wounded--of the rank and file the killed were thirty-five and the wounded about 300. The Turkish troops were completely routed and made no attempt to defend Basra, which was entered by the British on November 22. The whole Delta of the Euphrates and Tigris, which join about seventy miles from the coast and form a single stream known as the Shatt-el-Arab, was occupied and may prove a position of great value for further operations.

On November 10 great rejoicing was caused in Calcutta and in all the seaports of India by the receipt of the news that the German cruiser _Emden_ had at last been caught in one of the islands of the South Pacific, and had been sunk after a sharp engagement by H.M.S. _Sydney_ of the Australian Navy. Besides her visit to Madras, where she set the oil tanks on fire by her shells and did other damage, the _Emden_ had been for a considerable time the pest of the Indian Ocean, and the value of the merchant ships and cargoes she had destroyed was estimated at over 2,000,000_l._ sterling.

VI. NATIVE STATES.

Nowhere was the general loyalty evoked by the war manifested more strongly than in the Native States. One and all came forward with contributions of men and money to the extent of their ability and even beyond it. In addition to this many members of the ruling families gave their personal service. To enumerate in detail the part played by the several States would make a record greater than the "Catalogue of Ships" in Homer.

VII. TIBET.

The Conference of Tibetan and Chinese delegates under the presidency of Sir H. McMahon, Foreign Secretary to the Government of India, concluded its sittings at Delhi, but the result has not yet been made known. The usual rumours of conflict between Chinese and Tibetan troops on the Eastern Frontier were repeated at various times during the year, but no importance was attached to them.

The Dalai Lama showed in many ways a greater desire for friendly relations with the British Government, and it was reported that on the outbreak of the war in Europe he offered to raise a force of 1,000 Tibetans to assist the Allies. Much useful survey work and exploration was carried out in the unknown country to the north of Assam and the north-east of Burma, and this will enable the Government of India to lay down a natural boundary line in those regions when the question is ripe for settlement. It had been decided to extend administrative control over a part of the tribal area in North-East Burma, and the new district of Patas had been peacefully established.

CHARLES A. ROE.