CHAPTER XXVIII

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES OF THE CARBONIFEROUS PUYS OF SCOTLAND

The Basin of the Firth of Forth--North Ayrshire--Liddesdale.

Though many of the geological details of each of the Scottish districts of Puys have been given in the foregoing pages, it will be of advantage to describe in connected sequence the structure and geological history of a few typical areas. By far the fullest and most varied record of this phase of volcanic activity has been preserved in the basin of the Firth of Forth; but the north of Ayrshire and the district of Liddesdale furnish also many interesting characteristics.

1. BASIN OF THE FIRTH OF FORTH

Reference has already been made to the remarkable peculiarity in the development of the lower part of the Carboniferous system in this district.[476] Elsewhere throughout Scotland the Cement-stone group and the plateau lavas are immediately overlain by the Carboniferous Limestone series. But in the basin of the Firth of Forth a varied succession of strata, more than 3000 feet in thickness, intervenes between the Cement-stones and the Hurlet Limestone. The lower portion of this thick mass of sediment may represent a part of the Cement-stone group of other districts, but even if some deduction is made on this account there remain many hundred feet of stratified deposits, for which there does not appear to be any stratigraphical equivalent elsewhere in Scotland. The distinguishing features of this series of strata are the thick zones of white sandstone, with occasional bands of fine conglomerate, the abundant seams of dark shale, often highly carbonaceous (oil-shales), the cyprid limestones and the seams of coal. Such an association of deposits may indicate a more humid climate and more varied conditions of denudation and deposition than are presented by the typical Cement-stones. The muddy floor of the shallow water must, in many places, have supported a luxuriant growth of vegetation, which is preserved in occasional seams and streaks of coal. Numerous epiphytic ferns grew on the subærial stems and branches of the lycopodiaceous trees. Large coniferae clothed the higher grounds, from which the streams brought down copious supplies of sediment, and whence a flood now and then transported huge prostrate trunks of pine. In the lagoons animal life abounded. Cyprids swarmed to such a degree as to form by their accumulated remains bands of limestone, which in the well-known Burdiehouse seam sometimes attain a thickness of 70 feet. Fishes of many genera haunted the waters, for their scales, bones and coprolites are found in profusion among the shales and limestones.

[Footnote 476: See Maclaren's "Geology of Fife and the Lothians," the _Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Scotland_, on Sheets 31 and 32, and my Memoir, already cited, _Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin._ vol. xxix. (1879) p. 437.]

When the puys began their activity, this district was gradually dotted over with little volcanic cones. At the same time it was affected by the general movement of slow subsidence which embraced all Central Scotland. Cone after cone, more or less effaced by the waters which closed over it, was carried down and buried under the growing accumulation of sediment. New vents, however, continued to be opened elsewhere, throwing out for a time their showers of dust and stones, and then lapsing into quiescence as they sank into the lagoon. Two groups of volcanoes emitted streams of lava and built up two long volcanic ridges--those of Fife and West Lothian.

The occasional presence of the sea over the area is well shown by the occurrence of thin bands of limestone or shale, containing such fossils as species of _Orthoceras_, _Bellerophon_ and _Discina_, which suffice to prove the strata to be stratigraphical equivalents of the Lower Limestone shale, and part of the Carboniferous Limestone of England (Fig. 170). Yet the general estuarine or freshwater character of the accumulations seems satisfactorily established, not only by the absence of undoubtedly marine forms from most of the strata, but by the abundance of cyprids and small ganoids, the profusion of vegetable remains, and the occasional seams of coal.

The portion of the Forth basin within which the puys are displayed extends from near Leven in Fife, on the north, to Crosswood Burn near the borders of Lanarkshire, on the south, a distance of about 36 miles, and from near Culross in Fife and the line of the Almond River between Stirlingshire and Linlithgowshire, on the west, to the island of Inchkeith on the east, a distance of about 16 miles (Map IV.). But these limits do not precisely mark the original boundaries of the eruptions. To the north and south, indeed, we can trace the gradual dying out of the volcanic intercalations, until we reach ground over which no trace of either lavas or tuffs can be detected. To the east, the waters of the Firth conceal the geology of a considerable area, the island of Inchkeith with its bedded lavas and tuffs showing that these rocks extend some way farther eastwards than the position of that island. But in Midlothian there is no evidence that any of the puy-eruptions took place to the east of the line of the Pentland Hills. On the west side, the volcanic rocks dip under the Millstone Grit and Coal-measures, so that we do not know how far they extend in that direction. But as the Carboniferous Limestone series, when it rises again to the surface on the west side of the Stirlingshire coal-field, is destitute of included lavas and tuffs, the westward limit of the eruptions cannot lie much beyond the line of the River

Section of the Volcanic Series below the Hurlet or Main Limestone on the Coast of Fife, west of Kinghorn, in descending order[477]

[Footnote 477: The succession of rocks in this interesting coast-section was briefly given by Dr. P. Neill in his translation of Daubuisson's _Basalts of Saxony_, Edinburgh, 1814, note _f_, p. 215. He was secretary of the Wernerian Society, and in his enumeration the Wernerian terminology is used without a hint that any single band in the whole series is of volcanic origin.]

75. Reddish and white sandstones.

74. Shale with hard ribs of limestone and ironstone nodules. Fossils abundant.

73. Limestone, crinoidal, 8 or 9 feet.

72. Blue shale, becoming calcareous towards the top, where shells are plentiful.

71. Reddish false-bedded sandstones, with bands of reddish and blue shale.

70. Basalt in two sills separated by 2 or 3 feet of sandstone and shale.

69. Dark fissile sandy shale, passing up into white shaly sandstone, and including a thin parting of impure coal.

68. Limestone (Hurlet or Main Seam) in a number of bands having a united thickness of 25 feet. Abundant fossils.

67. Black shale becoming calcareous at top, and then enclosing abundant _Productus_, etc., 8 or 10 feet.

66. Red and green tufaceous marl and tuff. About 30 feet.

65. Basalt, the lower part strongly amygdaloidal.

64. Tufaceous red marl and tuff; comparatively coarse below, becoming finer above, 3 or 4 feet.

63. Basalt, earthy and amygdaloidal, with an irregular bottom involving masses of the shales below.

62. Dark calcareous shale and dull green tufaceous marly shale, 2 or 3 feet.

61. Crinoidal limestone in several bands with a united thickness of 10 feet.

60. Shale, 1 foot.

59. Fine green sandy tuffs in a number of bands of varying coarseness, about 6 feet.

58. Dark shale with abundance of _Aviculopecten_ immediately under the tuffs above, 1½ feet.

57. Soft, light, marly shale with fragmentary plants, 1½ feet.

56. Dark fissile shale, full of fish-scales, plants, etc., 3 feet.

55. Basalt, rudely columnar, dark fine-grained in centre, becoming highly amygdaloidal and scoriaceous at bottom and top.

54. Basalt, like the sheet above, vesicular at top and bottom, with a parting of red clay on top.

53. Fissile rippled sandy shale, with plants, having a red and green marly parting at the top, 12 or 14 feet.

52. Basalts; a group of beds, probably in part sills, involving three bands of sandstone or quartzite.

51. Quartzite--a hard white altered sandstone, 2 to 3 feet.

50. Basalt, light green, earthy, amygdaloidal.

49. Sandstones and shales with plants, 25 feet.

48. Basalt, with a highly amygdaloidal central band. There may be several sheets here.

47. Green tufaceous shale and marl, 1 foot.

46. Basalt, dark, firm and amygdaloidal.

45. Sandstones and shales with plants.

44. Basalt forming west side of Kinghorn Bay, and including more than one sheet. The rock is very black, compact, irregularly columnar, with the usual amygdaloidal earthy band at the base, and forms the crag called the Carlinehead Rocks. An irregular and inconstant band of dull green tufaceous shale, sometimes 2 feet thick, serves to separate two of the basalt-sheets. Below it lies a remarkable scoriaceous almost brecciated basalt, which has been broken up on cooling in such a manner that at first it might be mistaken for a volcanic conglomerate.

43. Basalt, a compact black solid rock, with a vesicular and amygdaloidal bottom, about 40 feet. This sheet runs out into the promontory of Kinghorn Ness.

42. Basalt, firm, compact and highly amygdaloidal throughout, 15 feet.

41. Basalt, earthy, amygdaloidal and scoriaceous in the upper part, compact below.

40. Red tufaceous marl, clay or bole, a few inches thick.

39. Basalt: one of the most compact sheets of the whole series, about 40 feet. The top is formed of a thick zone of scoriaceous and brecciated material, the bottom is singularly uneven owing to the very irregular surface of the underlying bed.

38. Basalt more or less scoriaceous throughout, especially at the bottom, the vesicles being drawn out round the slag-like blocks.

37. Green tufaceous shales with bands of fine green tuff, 7 to 8 feet. The lower bands consist of a gravelly tuff passing up into a fine volcanic mudstone, with scattered lapilli of basalt an inch or more in diameter.

36. Basalt, with an upper, earthy and highly amygdaloidal portion, 30 feet.

35. Tufaceous sandstone and shale, 6 to 8 feet.

34. Basalt, in a thick bed, having an earthy, slaggy top and a scoriaceous bottom.

33. Basalt, very slaggy below with a compact centre.

32. Basalt, like that below it.

31. Basalt, firm, compact, black rock, with a rough, green earthy band, from 6 inches to a foot, at the bottom, and becoming again very slaggy at the top.

30. Green shale like that below the underlying limestone, a few inches in thickness.

29. Coarse, green, sandy tufaceous limestone, averaging 1 foot in thickness.

28. Black shale with plants, 12 or 14 feet, becoming green and tufaceous at the top.

27. Basalt--the most striking of the whole section--a fine compact black olivine-bearing rock, beautifully columnar, 30 feet. The columns reach to within a foot of the bottom of the bed and cease about 10 feet from the top, the upper portion of the bed being massive, with vesicles which are drawn out parallel to the bedding of the series. The lowest part of the bed is a broken brecciated band, 3 or 4 inches thick. (See Fig. 171.)

26. Black shale with fragmentary plants, 3 feet.

25. Basalt, with plentiful olivine, 12 to 16 feet. The base is not highly scoriaceous, but finely vesicular. Towards the top it becomes green, earthy and roughly brecciated. It partly cuts out the tuff underneath.

24. Tuff, green, fine-grained and well-stratified, consisting chiefly of fine volcanic dust, but becoming coarser towards the top, where it contains lapilli and occasional bombs of highly vesicular lavas.

23. Black carbonaceous shale, 3 feet; approaching to the character of an impure coal in the lower part, and becoming more argillaceous above with some thin nodular calcareous bands.

22. Green tuff, 12 feet, well stratified and fine-grained, with minute lapilli of highly vesicular basic lavas; becomes shaly at the bottom.

21. Basalt, compact, amygdaloidal, with highly vesicular upper surface, 20 feet.

20. Basalt, hard, black and full of olivine; an irregular bed 3 to 6 feet thick.

19. Basalt, dull brownish-green to black, full of kernels and strings of calcite, and showing harder and softer bands parallel with upper and under surfaces, which give it a stratified appearance.

18. Basalt, some parts irregularly compact, others earthy and scoriaceous. The distinguishing feature of this bed is the abundance of its enclosed fragments of shale, ironstone and limestone, which here and there form half of its bulk. The roughly scoriaceous upper portion is especially full of these fragments. In the ironstone balls coprolites may be detected, and occasional pieces of plant-stems are embedded in the basalt. This lava has evidently broken up and involved some of the underlying strata over which it flowed. This rock overhangs Pettycur Harbour.

17. Shales and limestone bands more or less tufaceous, 8 to 10 feet, with plants, cyprids, etc. The intercalation of fine partings of tuff in this band has been already cited on p. 438, as an illustration of the feeble intermittent character of many of the volcanic explosions between successive outflowings of lava.

Owing to a change in the direction of strike the rocks now wheel round and for a time run nearly parallel with the coast-line, while they are partly concealed by blown sand and herbage. The shales and limestones just mentioned are not constant, and are soon lost, but about a quarter of a mile westward a band of tuff begins on the same horizon or near it, and increases in thickness towards the west, where it is associated with other sediments. The shore ceases to furnish a continuous section, so that recourse must be had to the craggy slopes immediately to the north, where the rocks can be examined on a cliff face (Fig. 153). There the tuff just referred to, together with some overlying bands of sandstone, is seen to pass under the group of basalts last enumerated. It is a green, stratified rock, perhaps 60 feet thick at its maximum, but dying out rapidly to north-west and south-east. It encloses balls of basalt and subangular and rounded fragments of sandstone, limestone and shale. A mass of coarse volcanic agglomerate which is connected with it and cuts across the ends of some of the basalts below, probably marks the position of the vent from which the tuff was ejected (Fig. 152).

16. Black and grey shales forming a thin band at the summit of King Alexander's Crag.

15. Basalt, dark compact rock, with an upper and lower highly scoriaceous and amygdaloidal band, 15 feet.

14. Black shales, tufaceous green shales, sandstone, and 6 inches of coal, forming a group of strata about 12 feet thick between two basalts; plants and cyprids abundant. (The coal seam is shown in Fig. 151.)

13. Basalt, dull, earthy and highly amygdaloidal, with abundant calcite in kernels and veins; about 15 feet, but varying in thickness.

12. Basalt, forming a well-marked bed from 12 to 25 feet thick. It is a compact black olivine-bearing rock, sparingly amygdaloidal, but showing the usual dull green, earthy scoriform base. The upper surface is singularly irregular, having, in flowing, broken up into large clinker-like blocks, which are involved in the immediately overlying basalt. The bottom also is very uneven, for the basalt has in some places cut out the underlying shales, so as to rest directly upon the basalt below.

11. Black shale, varying up to 6 inches, but sometimes entirely removed by the overlying lava-stream.

10. Basalt, containing large irregularly spheroidal masses of hard black finely vesicular material enclosed in more earthy and coarsely vesicular rock. The vesicles are sometimes elongated parallel to the bedding, but have often been drawn out round a spheroid; some of them measure nearly a foot in length by 2 or 3 inches in breadth. The upper surface is uneven and coarsely amygdaloidal.

9. Basalt, hard black, with abundant olivine, and a columnar structure.

8. Green shale, 6 inches to 1 foot, much baked and involved in the overlying basalt.

7. Basalt, dull-green, earthy, amygdaloidal, varying from 10 to 40 feet in thickness.

6. Blue shale, disappearing where the basalt above it unites with that below.

5. Basalt with olivine, forming a thick irregular bed, which in some places is black and compact, in others green, earthy and amygdaloidal. The upper part is particularly cellular.

4. Sandstones forming a thick group of beds which have long been quarried for building-stone at the Grange and elsewhere.

3. Black shales.

2. Limestone (Burdiehouse).

1. Sandstones, shales and thin limestones forming the strata at Burntisland through which the sills of that district have been injected (Fig. 159).

The phenomena of sills are abundantly developed among the Carboniferous rocks of the basin of the Firth of Forth, and some of the more remarkable examples in this district have been already cited. Taking now a general survey of this part of the volcanic history, I may observe that if the sills are for a moment considered simply as they appear at the surface, and apart from the geological horizons on which they lie, they form a wide ring surrounding the Falkirk and Stirlingshire coal-field.

Beginning at the Abbey Craig, near Stirling, we may trace this ring as a continuous belt of high ground from Stirling to the River Carron. Thence it splits up into minor masses in different portions of the Carboniferous system, and doubtless belonging to different periods of volcanic disturbance, but yet sweeping as a whole across the north-eastern part of the Clyde coal-field, and then circling round into Stirlingshire and Linlithgowshire. There are no visible masses to fill up the portion of the ring back to Abbey Craig. But through Linlithgowshire and the west of Edinburghshire a number of intrusive sheets form an eastward prolongation of the ring. Large as some of these sheets are at the surface, for they sometimes exceed two or three square miles in area, a much larger portion of their mass is generally concealed below ground. Mining operations, for example, have proved that in the south-east of Linlithgowshire areas of intrusive rock which appear as detached bosses or bands at the surface are connected underneath as portions of one continuous sill, which must be several square miles in extent.

But it is in Fife that the sills reach their greatest development among the Carboniferous rocks of Scotland (Fig. 172). A nearly continuous belt of them runs from the Cult Hill near Saline on the west, to near St. Andrews on the east, a distance of about 35 miles. This remarkable band is connected with a less extensive one, which extends from Torryburn on the west, to near Kirkcaldy on the east. In two districts of the Fife region of sills, a connection seems to be traceable between the intrusive sheets and volcanic vents, at least groups of necks are found in the midst of the sills. One of these districts is that of the Saline Hills already described, the other is that of Burntisland. In the latter case the evidence is especially striking, for the vents are connected above with bedded lavas and tuffs, while below lie three well-marked sills (Fig. 159).

It is certainly worthy of remark that sills are generally absent from those areas where no traces of contemporaneous volcanic activity are to be found. No contrast in this respect can be stronger than that between the ground to the east and west of the old axis of the Pentland Hills. In the western district, where the puys are so well displayed, sills abound, but in the eastern tract both disappear.

Another question of importance in dealing with the history of these sills is their stratigraphical position. By far the larger proportion of them lies in the Carboniferous Limestone series. Thus the great sill between Stirling and Kilsyth keeps among the lower parts of that series. On the same general horizon are the vast sheets of dolerite which stretch through Fife in the chain of the Cult, Cleish, and Lomond Hills on the one side, and in the eminences from Torryburn to Kinghorn on the other, though the intrusive material sometimes descends almost to the Old Red Sandstone. In Linlithgowshire and Edinburghshire, as well as in the south of Fife, the sills traverse the Calciferous Sandstone groups.

If the horizons of the sills furnished any reliable clue to their age, it might be inferred that the rocks were all intruded during the Carboniferous period, and as most of them lie beneath the upper stratigraphical limit of the puy-eruptions, the further deduction might be drawn that they are connected with these eruptions. I have little doubt that in a general sense both conclusions are well-founded. But that there are exceptions to the generalization must be frankly conceded. On close examination it will be observed that the same intrusive mass sometimes extends from the lower into the upper parts of the Carboniferous groups. Thus, in the west of Linlithgowshire, a large protrusion which lies upon the Upper Limestones, crosses most of the Millstone Grit, and reaches up almost as high as the Coal-measures. Again, in Fife, to the east of Loch Leven, a spur of the great Lomond sill, crossing the Carboniferous limestone, advances southward into the coal-field of Kinglassie, In Stirlingshire and Lanarkshire numerous large dolerite sheets have invaded the Millstone Grit and Coal-measures, including even the upper red sandstones, which form the top of the Carboniferous system in this region. It is thus obvious that if the puy-eruptions in the basin of the Forth ceased towards the close of the deposition of the Carboniferous Limestone series, there must have been a subsequent injection of basic lava on a gigantic scale in central Scotland. I shall recur to this subject in Chapter xxxi.

2. NORTH OF AYRSHIRE

In this part of the country another group of puys and their associated tuffs and lavas may be traced from near Dairy on the west, to near Galston on the east (Map IV.). The length of the tract is about sixteen miles, while its breadth varies from about a furlong to nearly a mile and a half. I have had occasion to allude to this marked band of volcanic materials which here intervenes between the Carboniferous Limestone and the Coal-measures, and from its position appears to mark the latest Carboniferous volcanoes. Its component rocks reach a thickness of sometimes 600 feet, and as they dip southwards under the Coal-measures, they may extend for some distance in that direction. They have been met with in borings sunk through the northern part of the Irvine coal-field. Even what of them can be seen at the surface, in spite of the effects of faults and denudation, shows that they form one of the most persistent platforms of volcanic rock among the puy-eruptions of Scotland.

Where best developed this volcanic band has a zone of tuff at the bottom, a central and much thicker zone of bedded basalts, and an upper group of tuffs, on which the Coal-measures rest conformably. A few vents, probably connected with it, are to be seen at the surface between Fenwick and Ardrossan. But others have been buried under the Carboniferous sedimentary rocks, and, as already described, have been discovered in the underground workings for coal and ironstone (p. 434). These mining operations have, indeed, revealed the presence of far more volcanic material below ground than would be surmized from what can be seen at the surface. Here and there, thin layers of tuff appear in brook-sections, indicating what might be conjectured to have been trifling discharges of volcanic material. But the prosecution of the ironstone-mining has proved that, at the time when the seam of Black-band Ironstone of that district was accumulated, the floor of the shallow sea or lagoon where this deposition took place was dotted over with cones of tuff, in the hollows between which the ferruginous and other sediments gathered into layers. That seam is in one place thick and of good quality; yet only a short distance off it is found to be so mixed with fine tuff as to be worthless, and even to die out altogether.[478]

[Footnote 478: See Explanation of Sheet 22, _Geol. Surv. of Scotland_, pars. 29, 33, 45.]

3. LIDDESDALE

A remarkable development of puys lies in that little-visited tract of country which stretches from the valleys of the Teviot and Rule Water south-westwards across the high moorland watershed, and down Liddesdale. Through this district a zone of bedded olivine-basalts and associated tuffs runs in a broken band which, owing to numerous faults and extensive denudation, covers now only a few scattered patches of the site over which it once spread. The geological horizon of this zone lies in the Calciferous Sandstones, many hundred feet above the position of the top of the plateau-lavas (Map IV.).

So great an amount of material has been here removed by denudation that not only has the volcanic zone been bared away, but the vents which supplied its materials have been revealed in the most remarkable manner over an area some twenty miles long and eight miles broad. Upwards of forty necks of agglomerate may be seen in this district, rising through the Silurian, Old Red Sandstone, and lowest Carboniferous rocks. It fills the geologist with wonder to meet with those stumps of old volcanoes far to the west among the Silurian lowlands, sometimes fully ten miles away from the nearest relic of the bedded lavas connected with them.[479] That these vents, though they rose through ground which at the time of their activity was covered with the volcanic series of the plateaux, do not belong to that series, but are of younger date, has been proved in several cases by Mr. Peach. He has found that among the blocks composing their agglomerates, pieces of the sandstones, fossiliferous limestones and shales of the Cement-stone group, overlying the plateau-lavas, are to be recognized. These vents were therefore drilled through some part at least of the Calciferous Sandstones, which are thus shown to have extended across the tract dotted with vents. After the volcanic activity ceased, fragments of these strata tumbled down from the sides into the funnels. Denudation has since stripped off the Calciferous Sandstones, but the pieces detached from them, and sealed up at a lower level in the agglomerates, still remain. Mr. Peach's observations indicate to how considerable an extent sagging of the walls of these orifices took place, with the precipitation not merely of blocks, but of enormous masses of rock, into the volcanic chimneys. In one instance, between Tudhope Hill and Anton Heights, a long neck, or perhaps group of necks, which crosses the watershed, shows a mass of the red sandstone many acres in extent, and large enough to be inserted on the one-inch map, which has fallen into the vent (Fig. 175).

[Footnote 479: They have been recognized and mapped by Mr. B. N. Peach for the Geological Survey. See Sheets 11 and 17, _Geol. Surv. Scotland_.]

The materials ejected from the Liddesdale vents include both basaltic lavas and tuffs. The former are sometimes highly vesicular, especially along the upper parts of the flows. They are thickest towards the north, and in Windburgh Hill attain a depth of at least 300 or 400 feet. In that part of the district they form the lower and main part of the volcanic series, being there covered by a group of tuffs. But a few miles southwards, not far to the west of Kershopefoot, they die out. The tuffs then form the whole of the volcanic band which, intercalated in a well-marked group of limestones, can be followed across the moors for some six miles into the valley of the Esk, where an interesting section of them and of the associated limestone and shales is exposed (Fig. 174). At Kershopefoot, a higher band of basic lava overlies the Kershopefoot limestone, and can be traced in scattered patches both on the Scottish and English side of the Border.

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Transcriber Note

Minor typos corrected. Several tables were rotated so they will fit in the limits of the text format. Text rearranged to avoid split paragraphs at full page images.