Part 16

The _Otomacos_ remain, as Gilii placed them, an independent stock, with their single dialect, the Tarapita. The Jesuits first encountered them in 1732, amid the forests south of the Orinoco, between the Paos and the Jaruros. In later years they are described as a low grade of savages, given to the eating of earth. They are also said to be monogamous, and the women among them enjoy an unusual degree of consideration, being permitted to take equal part in the public games.[411] Their present locality appears to be on or near the river Meta.

The tribes whom Gilii mentions as the _Guamas_ and Quaquaros lived on the banks of the Rio Apure, and in his day had the reputation of “a numerous and valorous people.”[412] They were not unacquainted with some of the arts, and were particularly skillful in the manufacture of small figures in terra cotta, many of which are to be picked up on the sites of their ancient villages. Now, however, they have been smitten with the fate of their race, and are reduced to a few miserable vagrants, destined to disappear wholly in a few years. Their arts are lost, and the oppression of the whites has driven from them all hopes of bettering their condition.[413]

Of their language I have no specimens. According to Felipe Perez, it is related to the Omagua, and hence should be included in the Tupi stock; but this writer is not always dependable.

The _Guaybas_ (Guahibos) and Chiricoas dwelt originally on the broad plains between the Casanare and Meta rivers; but a number of them were converted in the latter half of the seventeenth century and persuaded to come to the missions. They soon returned to their roving life. Cassani speaks of them as of mild and friendly disposition, but incorrigible vagabonds, “the gypsies of the Indies,” constantly migrating from place to place.[414] They have never lost their love of the wilderness, and it has been their salvation, for they still survive--quite a numerous people--on the left bank of the Orinoco, from the Rio Meta to the Vichada. They are rebellious to all attempts at civilization, and the white man is not safe who ventures into their territory.[415]

Humboldt, in his discussion of the tribes of the Orinoco, refers to the Guahibos as white in color, and founds some speculations on this fact. Their hue is indeed light, at times what may fairly be called a dirty white; but in this respect we are assured by recent and competent authority they do not differ from their neighbors, the Maquiritares and Piaroas. It is not a question of descent, but of climatic surroundings and mode of life.[416]

The home of the _Jaruris_, Yaruras, or, as they called themselves, Japurin, was on and near the Orinoco, between the rivers Meta and Capanapaco. They depended on hunting and fishing, and were indolent and averse to agriculture. They had few arts, but were friendly in disposition, not given to drunkenness, and usually monogamous. At present they number scarcely a hundred individuals, badly formed, afflicted with contagious disease, and rapidly on the road to extinction. They have lost their trait of sobriety, and a man will readily offer his wife or daughter in exchange for a bottle of brandy. (Chaffanjon.)

The _Guaraunos_, called by the English _Warraus_, continue to live in considerable numbers--some say about fifteen thousand--in and near the delta of the Orinoco. They are a thrifty, healthy people, building their houses ingeniously upon piles to protect them from the periodical overflows of the stream. This method of construction, however, was adopted only when they sought as refuge marshy and lonely spots to escape their enemies. Contrary to the statements of most travelers, those who know them best report them as preferring dry uplands, where they make clearings, plantations and houses with singular industry and skill. The favorite wood used in such construction is the _temiche_ (not the _moriche_) palm, which they call, from its magnificent fronds, “the feathers of the sun,” _ya juji_.[417]

Humboldt placed their number at the beginning of the century at about six thousand, which is doubtless more correct than the later estimates. He adds that the Guayquiries, who inhabited the peninsula of Araya and the adjacent islands of Margarita, “admit the relationship of their language with that of the Guaraunos.”[418] At the beginning of the last century Gumilla found them living on the south bank of the Orinoco in a most wretched condition and nearly annihilated by their merciless enemies, the Caribs. It is probable, therefore, that they removed from that location to the coast.[419] No other dialect of the tongue, so far as I know, has been discovered, and it seems an independent stock.

In appearance they are dark in hue, of muscular build, hair black, abundant and very fine, noses straight and well-shaped, skull brachycephalic, stature below medium.

The _Aruaca_ mentioned by Gilii were some tribes of the Arawaks who occasionally visited the southern bank of the Orinoco, and whose relations to the Maypures were not known to him. They are also mentioned by other authors.

Having thus reviewed the linguistic stocks named by Gilii, I shall proceed to mention some which escaped his attention.

One of the most interesting of these is the _Betoi_, or _Betoya_. This tongue derived its name from a tribe dwelling at the foot of the mountains of Bogota, between the rivers Apure and Tame, and are therefore included by some among the Indians of New Granada. From a number of authorities I find the following members are attributed to the

BETOYA LINGUISTIC STOCK.

_Airicos_, on head-waters of the Manacacia, the Ele and Guainia. _Amaguages_, near Rio Caqueta. _Anibalis_, on Rio Apure. _Betois_, on and near Rio Casanare, about north latitude 5°. _Correguages_, on Rio Yari and head-waters of Caqueta. _Jamas_, on Rio Manacacia. _Macaguages_, on Rios Caucaya, Mecaya and Sensella. _Piojes_, on Rio Putumayo, and on the Napo and Caucaya (Cocayu). _Quilifayes_, on Rio Apure. _Situfas_, on Rio Casanare. _Tamas_, on the Rio Yari and Rio Caguo. _Tunebos_, in the Cordillera, adjacent to the Betois.

Of these, the Piojes and Correguages, of which we have vocabularies, do not show close resemblance to the Betoya, yet undoubtedly some;[420] so I place them in this stock partly in deference to old authorities.

The Piojes derive their name from the particle of negation in their language, this being their usual reply to all inquiries by traders or travelers. They are divided into two bands, speaking the same dialect, one on the Napo and one on the Putumayo, neither knowing anything of the other. Some of their customs are peculiar. For instance, it is their rule that a widow shall take her son, a widower his daughter, to replace the deceased consort.[421] They are somewhat agricultural, and are skillful boatmen.

The Tamas formerly lived on the river Aguarico (Coleti). Dr. Crévaux found them on the Caguo, a branch of the Yapura, and obtained from them a short vocabulary, but enough to mark them as members of the stock.[422] There are also some on the Rio Meta who speak Spanish only. (Perez.)

The Betoya has impressed me as showing some distant affinity to the Choco stock, and it may be that ampler resources on both sides would lead to the establishment of an original identity. The following words from the very scanty number which I have for comparison are noteworthy:

CHOCO STOCK. BETOYA STOCK. Man, _uma-china_, _uma-soi_, _emi-ud_. Woman, _uerá_, _ro_. Fire, _tŭjoor_, _toa-tui_. Ear, _juru_, _ca-joro-so_. Nose, _jun_, _ju-saca_, _jin-quepui_.

The Choco _do_, river, seems related to the Betoya _ocu-du_, water.

The Macaguages are industrious and agricultural. Both sexes dress alike in cotton tunics dyed in violet color, and suspend bright feathers and strings of beads in ears, nose and lips.[423]

A singular question has arisen as to the relationship of the Betoya and the Yarura languages. Their near connection was affirmed by the early missionaries. In fact, the history of the conversion of the Betoyas turns upon the identity of the two tongues. It was brought about in 1701 by a Yarura Indian, a convert to Christianity, who accidentally discovered that he was understood by the Betoyas.

In spite of this detail, it is evident from an inspection of the vocabularies, that there is absolutely no relationship between the two idioms. I can only explain the contradiction as arising from some ambiguity or similarity of names. The two tribes lived together in the time of Gumilla, making up about three thousand souls.[424]

About the middle of this century some six hundred of the Betoyas dwelt on the head-waters of the river Manacacia.[425]

In the territory of St. Martin, above the falls of the Guaviare and along the Rio Guejar and the Meta, are several tribes asserted to speak related dialects, but of which I have little information. The principal one is that of the _Churoyas_, of whom Professor Nicolas Saenz has given an interesting sketch and a short vocabulary.[426] They are very ugly, with broad faces, low foreheads, small and oblique eyes, and in color like dried tobacco. Nudity is their usual garb, and the skin is decorated with tattoo marks instead of clothing. According to Perez they number about 1200.[427] Following him and other authorities, I may enumerate the following members of the

CHUROYA LINGUISTIC STOCK.

_Bisaniguas_, on the Rio Guejar. _Choroyas_, on the Rio Guejar. _Cofanes_, on the Rio Aguarico. _Guayues_, on the Rio Caqueta. _Macos_, on the Rio Aguarico.

Whether the Cofanes here named are those of the Province of Quitu who murdered the Jesuit missionary, Raphael Ferrer, in 1602, I have not discovered. Perez describes them as still warlike and seclusive, living in the terminal hills of the Cordillera, and avoiding traffic with the tribes of the lower river.[428]

An examination of the vocabulary furnished by Saenz inclines me to think that the Churoya may be a mongrel dialect, or at least has borrowed freely from neighboring stocks. I subjoin the principal words from his short vocabulary, with some comparisons:

Sun, _mshojaint_. Moon, _juimit_ (_oamito_, Guahiba). Fire, _hijit_ (_chichi_, = sun, Carib). Water, _minta_. Bow, _piranso_ (_paria_, Roucouyenne). Arrow, _funait_. Tobacco, _joo_. Plantain, _parasa_. Dog, _uilg_. Tortoise, _ainjachie_. Wind, _che_. Skin, _begt_.

The _Piaroas_ are mentioned by Gilii as a branch of the Salivas, but their language reveals no such connection. They are still found on both banks of the Orinoco above the confluence of the Vichada and near the mouth of the Mataveni. They are savage and superstitious, avoiding contact with the whites; they have had good reason to be extremely distrustful of the advances of their civilized neighbors. They are much given to nocturnal ceremonies, and entertain a great respect for the tapir, who is their reputed ancestor, and also the form which is taken by the souls of the departed.[429]

The _Puinavis_ dwell on the Inirida, an affluent of the Guaviare. A tribe, the Guipunabis, is mentioned by Gilii as belonging to the Maipure (Arawak) stock; but it cannot be the same with the one under consideration, the language of which appears to be without affinities. Latham identified them with the _Poignavis_ of the older writers, and on slight linguistic evidence, believed them connected with the Banivas.[430] My own comparisons do not justify this opinion.

_8. The Upper Amazonian Basin._

No portion of the linguistic field of South America offers greater confusion than that of the western Amazonian region. The statements are so conflicting, and the tribal changes apparently so rapid, that we are at a loss to bring modern observations into accord with older statements. Thus, I am entirely unable to accept the linguistic classification of Hervas, which certainly was based on the best information of his day. As a matter of comparison I give it.

_List of Languages in the Governments of Maynas and the Marañon (Hervas)._

STOCKS. DIALECTS.

1. ANDOA. Araro. Chuudaviño. Gae. Guazago. Murato. Pabo. Pinche. Simigae. Bobonazo.

2. CAMPA. Amjemhuaco. Curano. Manua. Nanerua. Nesahuaco. Sepaunabo. Tasio.

3. CHAYAVITA. Cahuapano. Paranaruro.

4. COMABA. Ginua. Inuaco. Ruanababo. Zepo.

5. CUNIBA. Manamabobo. Mananamabua.

6. ENCABELLADA. Guajoyo. Guencoyo. Neocoyo. Zaparro, or Encabellado. Ziecoyo.

7. IEBERA. Tiputini. Tibilo.

8. MAINA. Chapo. Coronado. Humurano. Roamaino.

9. MUNICHE. Muchimo. Otanabe.

10. PANA. Iltipo. Pelada.

11. PIRA. Cusitinavo. Manatinavo. Upatarinavo.

12. SIMIGAE. Arazo. Ijinori. Nevo. Oa. Zaparro.

13. LUCUMBIA. Putumayo. Yete. Ceoqueyo.

14. URARINA. Barbudo. Itucale. Mayoruño. Musimo.

15. YAMEA. Amaono. Nahuapo. Napeano. Masamae.

16. JINORI. Acamaori. Camacori. Iqueconejori. Panajori. Tremojori.

A slight examination of this classification suffices to reveal its general inaccuracy. The Zaparos are included in both the Encabellada and the Simigae stocks. The latter is given both as a stock and as a dialect of the Andoa. In fact, all three of the stocks named belong together as dialects of one. The Pano stock, as we now know it, appears scattered under Cuniba, Urarina and Pana; and the arrangement is incorrect in many other points. While it has a value in preserving the names of some now missing tribes, as a linguistic scheme it is wholly unsafe.

The _Zaparos_ constitute one of the most extended and numerous nations in the upper valley of the Amazon. They dwell near or adjacent to the Jivaros on the south, and as their name is variously spelled Zaparos, Xeberos and Jeberos, they have at times been confounded with them. They differ, however, not only in language, but in appearance and temperament. The Zaparos are lighter in color, smaller in stature, with oblique eyes, large mouths, and expanded nostrils.[431] Their disposition is indolent and easy tempered, and their abilities inferior. This is seen in the construction of their houses and the appearance of their fields, which do not compare advantageously with those of the Jivaros; but they display some ingenuity in manufacturing clothing from the bark of a species of _Ochroma_, and they are skillful in concocting the urara poison, in making blow-pipes, and are daring boatmen.

In 1632 they lived near the Omaguas, on the river Curary, and their number was estimated by the missionaries at 10,000. At present their main body dwells between the rivers Pastaza and Napo and along the Marañon between the rivers Zamora and Morona. In 1850 Osculati estimated their number at over 20,000, which is certainly in excess of their present representatives. The many small tribes into which they are divided, and the confused orthography of the names applied to them, render it difficult to offer a satisfactory list. It seems tolerably certain that the ancient “Andoas” were the Zaparos of the upper Pastaza,[432] and equally sure that the Encabellada, the Iebera, the Simigae and the Jinori languages, all supposed by Hervas to be independent stocks,[433] were spoken by members of the Zaparo family. The Iquitos are another populous branch, sometimes supposed to be distinct.

The Zaparo language is agreeable to the ear, partaking of the phonetic character of the Brazilian idioms. The Italian traveler, Osculati, has furnished a very satisfactory account of it, both grammatical and lexicographical,[434] and there are vocabularies by other voyagers.

I offer the following alphabetic list of the sub-tribes of the Zaparos, without attempting to define their several positions in the general district referred to:

ZAPARO LINGUISTIC STOCK.

_Achuales_. _Agapicos_. _Aicores_. _Andoas_. _Anguteris_. _Antires_. _Araros_, or _Arazos_. _Ayacares_. _Bobonazos_. _Cahuaches_. _Chudavinos_. _Churitunas_. _Comacoris_. _Conejoris_. _Copatasas_. _Curyies_. _Curarayes_. _Custimanos_. _Cutinanas_. _Encabellados_. _Eriteynes_. _Frascavinos_. _Gaes_. _Ginoris_. _Gualaquizas_. _Guazacas_. _Himuetacas_. _Huasimoas_. _Ibanomas_. _Incuris_. _Itremajoris_. _Macavinas_. _Mautas_. _Moronas_. _Mueganos_. _Muratos_. _Napotoas_. _Neocoyos_. _Nepas_. _Nerecamues_. _Nushinis_. _Oas_. _Panajoris_. _Paranapuras_. _Pastazas_. _Pavos_. _Pindis_. _Putumayos_. _Quirivinas_. _Rotunos_. _Semigaes_. _Shiripunas_. _Tabalosos_. _Tiputinis_. _Tivilos_. _Tremajoris_. _Yasunis_. _Yegueyos_. _Yetes_. _Zamoros_. _Zapaos_.

On the mountain slope of the Cordillera, north of the Zaparos and east of the Cañaris, are the _Jivaros_ (Givaros, Xivaros), a wild, warlike tribe, never subjugated either by the Kechuas or the Spaniards. Their homes are about the head-waters of the rivers Pastaza, Santiago, and other affluents of the Marañon. They are rather tall, of light color, with thin lips, aquiline noses, straight eyes, prognathic jaws, hair black or with a reddish tinge.

Some say their various bands number as many as four hundred, named from the streams on which they live. Most of them depend upon hunting and fishing, others pursue agriculture and breed pigs. Their weapons are the sarbacane, the lance, the bow and the shield. They have developed a system of sound-signalling or telegraphy by means of large wooden drums placed at certain distances apart, by beating on which in a peculiar manner the advent of an enemy, his number and direction, can be heralded over hundreds of square miles in a few hours. The Jivaros are celebrated for the preparation of human heads by a process of boiling and drying so as to preserve the hair and soft parts. Many of these trophy heads have been brought to Europe, and their purpose has led to some discussion. It appears that they are prepared both as trophies of victory and out of reverence to departed chiefs.[435] Their houses are built solidly of wood, with wooden doors. They sleep upon wooden frames, and construct tools of the same material.[436]

The principal event in their history was their revolt against the Spanish authorities in the year 1599. They destroyed many settlements and the entire city of Logroño, carrying the women into captivity. Many of them had already been converted to Christianity, and their rites are said still to preserve some reminiscences of such teachings. In recent years many of them have been civilized through the efforts of Italian missionaries.

The language of this important nation, although early studied, has as yet no printed literature. I have found of it only the first five numerals, which do not seem to have connection with any other tongue. They are as follows:

1. _Alza_; 2. _catuta_; 3. _kala_; 4. _ingatu_; 5. _aleyticlon_.[437]

From a study of proper names and ethnographic traits, Dr. Hamy has expressed himself with great assurance that the Jivaros belong to the Guarani group of the Tupi stock;[438] but the above numerals do not indicate such relationship, nor do I think that his other arguments establish it. For the present they must be considered an independent stock.

JIVARO LINGUISTIC STOCK.

_Antipas_, above the Pongo de Manseriche. _Aguarunas_, below the mouth of the Rio Nieva and Rio Huallaga. _Ayulis_, on the Rio Morono. _Cherembos_, left bank of Marañon. _Chirapas_. _Huambisas_, on Marañon above the Pongo de Manseriche. _Lojanos_. _Muratos_, below mouth of the Rio Pastaza. _Pautis_. _Uambisas_, south of the Marañon. _Zamoras_.

The eastern neighbors of the Jivaros are the scattered bands of the _Maynas_, separated by Hervas into two stocks, the Maina and the Chayavita, but so far as I can learn, without sufficient reason. The language is or was spoken at the mission of the Conception on the upper Marañon and in the uplands around Cerros de Mainas. It is singularly harsh and difficult. The natives were wild, and lived by hunting and fishing. Their earlier home was on the upper waters of the Morona and Pastaza rivers.

The following bands are embraced in the

MAINA LINGUISTIC STOCK.[439]

_Cahuapanas_. _Chapos_. _Chayavitas_. _Coronados_. _Humuranos_. _Mainas_. _Roamainas_.

On the Rio Javary there seem to be several independent stocks. One of these is that of the _Yameos_, who are found in the lower course of the river and also further up the Marañon, near Nauta, and on the Huallaga, where they are called Llameos, Yameos, Lamas, or Lamistas. Formerly they were a numerous and warlike nation, sharply divided into gentile organizations, and carefully refraining from intermarriage in the gens. At an early date we hear of them between the Rio Tigre and the Napo. (Markham.)

The following sub-tribes are stated by various writers to belong to the

LAMA LINGUISTIC STOCK.

_Aguanos_. _Alabonos_. _Amaonos_. _Cahuaches_. _Massamaes_. _Miquianos_. _Nahuapos_. _Napeanos_. _Parranos_. _Yarrapos_.

Pöppig describes them as agricultural and industrious, and much given to trade and travel.

In appearance, they are small, dirty and Mongoloid, sharply contrasting with the Indians of the Huallaga, who are all tall, strong and well built, with good features.[440]

In conformity to old authorities, Markham classes the _Ardas_ as a sub-tribe of the Yameos. Their home was between the rivers Napo and Masso. On the latter they were in immediate contiguity to the Massamaes (Coleti). There has been published a _Doctrina_ in their language, from which the Lord’s Prayer is quoted by Ludewig.[441] This version has no resemblance to the Pater in Yamea contained in the Mithridates; so for the present I leave the Ardas unclassified.

Higher up the river Javary are a number of tribes speaking related dialects of what I shall call the _Peba_ stock, though there are some reasons to consider it a corrupt dialect of the Omagua, and hence related to the Tupi.

PEBA LINGUISTIC STOCK.

_Caumaris_. _Cauwachis_. _Pacayas_. _Pebas_.

To this list I add the Yeguas, Yaguas or Yahuas, found in the same vicinity, and remarkable for their fine personal appearance, “the most perfect physical type,” says M. Ordinaire, “of all the Indian races.”[442] The vocabulary of their language obtained by Castelnau shows unmistakable affinities to that of the Pebas.[443]