Part 6

A compositor who studies propriety and neatness in his work will not allow an unnecessary division, even in a narrow measure, if he can avoid it by overrunning two or three lines of matter. In large type and narrow measures, the division of words cannot be avoided; but care should be taken that hyphens do not occur at the end of successive lines. In small type and wide measures, the hyphen may frequently be dispensed with, either by driving out or getting in the word, without interfering with the regularity of the spacing. The compositor who is careful on this point will find his advantage in the preference given to his work, and in the respect attached to his character as a master of his business. Numerous divisions down the side of a page and irregular spacing are the two greatest defects in composition.

It is proper, if possible, to keep the derivative or radical word undivided: as, _occur-rence_, _gentle-man_, _respect-ful_, &c. In other cases, printers generally divide on the vowel, which is an excellent method.

The hyphen is also used to connect compound words, which are formed of two substantives, as, _bird-cage_, _love-letter_, &c.; also what are termed compound adjectives, as, _well-built_ house, _handsome-faced_ child, &c.

The prepositions _after_, _before_, _over_, &c. are often connected with other words, but do not always make a proper compound: thus, _before-mentioned_ is a compound when it precedes a substantive, as, in the _before-mentioned_ place; but when it comes after a noun, as, in the place _before mentioned_, it should be two distinct words.[11]

PARENTHESIS AND BRACKET.

The use of the PARENTHESIS ( ) is to enclose interpolated words or sentences which serve to strengthen the argument, although the main sentence would be complete without the interpolated matter.

Parentheses are not as much used as formerly: authors place their intercalations between commas,—frequently with a dash at the beginning and ending,—which make them quite as intelligible as though they were enclosed between parentheses.

Brackets [ ] are seldom made use of, except to indicate that the word enclosed within them had been carelessly omitted in the old MS. or copy, and was now inserted by the editor.

REFERENCES.

References are marks and signs employed to direct the attention of the reader to notes in the margin or at the bottom of a page.

The characters technically known by printers as references are the following, which are used in the order here given:—

Asterisk * Dagger † Double Dagger ‡ Section § Parallel ∥ Paragraph ¶

In Roman church-books, the Asterisk divides each verse of a psalm into two parts, and marks the place where the responses begin: this in the Book of Common Prayer is denoted by a colon placed between the two parts of each verse. Asterisks also denote an omission, or an hiatus in the original copy; the number of asterisks being multiplied according to the extent of the omission.

The Dagger, originally termed the Obelisk, or Long Cross, is frequently used in Roman Catholic church-books, prayers of exorcism, at the benediction of bread, water, and fruit, and upon other occasions, where the priest is to make the sign of the cross; but the square cross (✠) is the proper symbol for the purpose. The square cross is used, besides, in the pope’s briefs, and in mandates of archbishops and bishops, immediately before the signature of their names. It is not placed among references.

Besides its use as a reference mark, the Paragraph is now employed chiefly in Bibles, to show the parts into which a chapter is divided. In Common Prayer Books, paragraphs are put before the lines that direct the order of the service, and which are called the Rubrics because they were formerly printed in red.

The neatest references, when many are required in books, are either superior letters or superior figures,—thus, ¹, ², ³, or thus, ᵃ, ᵇ, ᶜ. Superior letters are used chiefly in Bibles and other books which have more than one sort of notes, and therefore require different references. When thus used, the letter ʲ should be omitted, as, from its similarity to the ⁱ, the reader might at times be led into error.

ACCENTED LETTERS.

Letters called accented by printers are the five vowels, marked thus:—

Acute á é í ó ú Grave à è ì ò ù Circumflex â ê î ô û Diæresis ä ë ï ö ü Long ā ē ī ō ū Short ă ĕ ĭ ŏ ŭ

We may include the French ç, the Spanish ñ, the Portuguese ã and õ, the Swedish and Norwegian å and ö, and the Welsh ŵ and ŷ.

NUMERAL LETTERS.

The Greeks at first employed the letters of the entire alphabet to express the first twenty-four numbers; but the system was cumbrous, and they adopted the happy expedient of dividing their alphabet into three portions, using the first to symbolize the 9 digits, the second the 9 tens, and the third the 9 hundreds; and, as their alphabet contained only twenty-four letters, they invented three additional symbols. Their list of symbols then stood as follows:—

+-----------------+----------------------+---------------------+ | Units. | Tens. | Hundreds. | +-----------------+----------------------+---------------------+ |α represents 1|ι represents 10|ρ represents 100| |β 2|κ 20|σ 200| |γ 3|λ 30|τ 300| |δ 4|μ 40|υ 400| |ε 5|ν 50|φ 500| |ϝ (introduced) 6|ξ 60|χ 600| |ζ 7|ο 70|ψ 700| |η 8|π 80|ω 800| |θ or ϑ 9|Ϟ or ϟ (introduced) 90|ϡ, [symb], [symb] | | | | (introd’d) 900| +-----------------+----------------------+---------------------+

By these symbols, only numbers under 1000 could be expressed; but, by putting a mark called iota under any symbol, its value was increased a thousand-fold: thus, ᾳ = 1000, κͅ = 20,000; or, by subscribing the letter Μ, the value of a symbol was raised ten thousand-fold. For these two marks, single and double dots were afterward substituted. This improvement enabled them to express with facility all numbers as high as 9,990,000,—a range sufficient for all ordinary purposes.

It has been supposed that the Romans used M to denote 1000 because it is the first letter of Mille, which is Latin for 1000; and C to denote 100, it being the first letter of Centum, the Latin term for 100. Some also suppose that D, being formed by dividing the old M in the middle, was therefore appointed to stand for 500,—that is, half as much as the M stood for when it was whole; and that L being half a C, was, for the same reason, used to denominate 50. But the most natural account of the matter appears to be this:—

The Romans probably put down a single stroke, Ⅰ, for one, as is still the practice of those who score on a slate, or with chalk; this stroke they doubled, trebled, and quadrupled, to express two, three, and four: thus, ⅠⅠ, ⅠⅠⅠ, ⅠⅠⅠⅠ. So far they could easily number the strokes with a glance of the eye; but they found that if more were added it would be necessary to count the strokes one by one: for this reason, when they came to five, it was expressed by joining two strokes together in an acute angle, thus, Ⅴ.

After they had made this acute angle, Ⅴ, for five, they then added single strokes to the number of four, thus, ⅤⅠ, ⅤⅠⅠ, ⅤⅠⅠⅠ, ⅤⅠⅠⅠ, and then, as the strokes could not be further multiplied without confusion, they doubled their acute angle by prolonging the two lines beyond their intersection, thus, Ⅹ, to denote two fives, or ten. After they had doubled, trebled, and quadrupled this double acute angle, thus, ⅩⅩ, ⅩⅩⅩ, ⅩⅩⅩⅩ, they then, for the same reason which induced them to make a single angle first, and then to double it, joined two single strokes in another form, and, instead of an acute angle, made a right angle, Ⅼ, to denote fifty. When this was doubled, they then doubled the right angle, thus, ⊏, to denote one hundred, and, having numbered this double right angle four times, thus, ⊏⊏, ⊏⊏⊏, ⊏⊏⊏⊏, when they came to the fifth number, as before, they reverted it, and put a single stroke before it, thus, Ⅰ⊐, to denote five hundred; and, when this five hundred was doubled, then they also doubled their double right angle, setting two double right angles opposite to each other, with a single stroke between them, thus, ⊏Ⅰ⊐, to denote one thousand: when this note for one thousand had been repeated four times, they then put down Ⅰ⊐⊐ for five thousand, ⊏⊏Ⅰ⊐⊐ for ten thousand, and Ⅰ⊐⊐⊐ for fifty thousand.

The corners of the angles being cut off by transcribers for despatch, these figures were gradually brought into what are now called numerical letters. When the corners of ⊏Ⅰ⊐ were made round, it stood thus, ⅭⅠↃ, which is so near the Gothic ന that it soon deviated into that character; so that Ⅰ⊐ having the corners made round stood thus, ⅠↃ, and then easily deviated into D. ⊏ also became a plain C by the same means: the single rectangle, which denoted fifty, was, without any alteration, a capital L; the double acute angle was an X; the single acute angle, a V; and a plain single stroke, the letter I. And thus these seven letters, M, D, C, L, X, V, I, became numerals. As a further proof of this assertion, let it be considered that ⅭⅠↃ is still used for one thousand, and ⅠↃ for five hundred, instead of M and D; and this mark, ന, is sometimes used to denote one thousand, which may easily be derived from this figure, ⊏Ⅰ⊐, but cannot be deviations from, or corruptions of, the Roman letter M. The Romans also expressed any number of thousands by a line drawn over any numeral less than one thousand: thus, V̅ denotes five thousand, L̅X̅ sixty thousand; so, likewise, M̅ is one million, M̅M̅ two millions, &c.

Upon the discovery of printing, and before capitals were invented, small letters served for numerals; not only when Gothic characters were in vogue, but when Roman had become the prevailing character. Thus, in early times, ~i~ ~b~ ~x~ ~l~ ~c~ ~d~ ~m~ were, and in Roman type are still, of the same signification as capitals when used as numerals. Though the capital J is not a numeral letter, yet the lower-case ~j~ is as often and as significantly used as the vowel ~i~, especially where the former is employed as a closing letter, in ~ij~ ~iij~ ~bj~ ~bij~ ~biij~ ~dcij~, &c. In Roman lower-case numerals, the j is not regarded, but the i stands for figure 1 wherever it is used numerically.

During the existence of the French Republic, books were dated in France from the first year of the Republic: thus An. XII. (1803,) or twelve years from 1792.

ARITHMETICAL FIGURES.

The arithmetical or Arabic numerals are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. Properly they should be styled Hindu or Indian numerals; for the Arabs borrowed them, along with the decimal system of notation, from the Hindus. They were probably first introduced from the East into Italy about 1202; yet they did not come into general use before the invention of printing. Accounts were kept in Roman numerals up to the sixteenth century. Figures are usually made one en thick; but of late a broader figure is cast for newspaper use, which is two-thirds or six-sevenths of an em in width.

OLD STYLE FIGURES.

Though uniform in height and appearance, we do not deem the modern figures an improvement on the variously-lining figures formerly in vogue, and now happily coming again into use. The latter can be caught by the eye with greater ease and certainty, just as lower-case letter can be read with more facility than continuous lines of capitals. In the new style the 3 and 8 may easily be mistaken for each other, and so with the 6, 9, and 0; but in the old style figures such errors are quite unlikely to happen, as some of them occupy the centre of the body only, and others are ascending or descending characters. The example here given will show the justice of our remarks:

~1~ ~2~ ~3~ ~4~ ~5~ ~6~ ~7~ ~8~ ~9~ ~0~

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0

SCRATCHED OR CANCELLED FIGURES

1̷ 2̷ 3̷ 4̷ 5̷ 6̷ 7̷ 8̷ 9̷ 0̷

Are used in arithmetical matter when certain figures require to be crossed over in an operation.

FRACTIONS.

Common Fractions, or broken numbers in arithmetic, are cast solid to all sizes of type. A great improvement has been introduced by casting the numerator and denominator separately, on bodies of half size, with the line on the under figure, so that odd fractions of any amount may be readily formed, thus: ¹ ² ³ ⁄₂ ⁄₃ ⁄₄ ½ ⅔ ¾.

SIGNS.

COMMERCIAL SIGNS.

⅌ _Per_, each. @ At or to. % Percentum. ℀ Account. ¢ Cent. $ Dollar or dollars. £ _Libra_, _libræ_, pound or pounds sterling. / _Solidus_, _solidi_, shilling or shillings.

MATHEMATICAL, ALGEBRAICAL, AND GEOMETRICAL.

+ _plus_, or _more_, is the sign of real existence of the quantity it stands before, and is called an affirmative or positive sign. It is also the mark of addition: thus, _a_+_b_, or 6+9, implies that _a_ is to be added to _b_, or 6 added to 9.

− _minus_, or _less_, before a single quantity, is the sign of negation, or negative existence, showing the quantity to which it is prefixed to be less than nothing. But between quantities it is the sign of subtraction: thus, _a_−_b_, or 8−4, implies _b_ subtracted from _a_, or 8 after 4 has been subtracted.

= _equal_. The sign of equality, though Des Cartes and some others use this mark, ∝: thus, _a_=_b_ signifies that _a_ is equal to _b_. Others use the mark = to denote identity of ratios.

× _into_ or _with_. The sign of multiplication, showing that the quantities on each side the same are to be multiplied by one another: as, _a_×_b_ is to be read, _a_ multiplied into _b_; 4×8, the product of 4 multiplied into 8. Wolfius and others use a dot between the two factors: thus, 7·4 signifies the product of 7 and 4. In algebra the sign is commonly omitted, and the two quantities put together: thus, _bd_ expresses the product of _b_ and _d_. When one or both of the factors are compounded of several letters, they are distinguished by a line drawn over them: thus, the factum of _a_+_b_-_c_ into _d_ is written, _d_ × _a̅_+̅_b̅__-̅c̅_. Others distinguish the compound factors by including them in parentheses: thus, (_a_+_b_-_c_)_d_.

÷ _by_. The sign of division: thus, _a_÷_b_ denotes the quantity _a_ to be divided by _b_. Wolfius makes the sign of division two dots; 12:4 denotes the quotient of 12 divided by 4 = 3.

> or ⫍ are signs of majority: thus, _a_>_b_ expresses that _a_ is greater than _b_.

< or ⫎ are signs of minority,—when we would denote that _a_ is less than _b_.

∞ is the character of similitude used by Wolfius, Leibnitz, and others. It is used in other authors for the difference between two quantities when it is unknown which is the greater of the two.

∷ _so is_. The mark of geometrical proportion disjunct, and is usually placed between two pair of equal ratios: as, 3∶6∷4∶8 shows that 3 is to 6 as 4 is to 8.

∶ or ∴ is an arithmetical equal proportion: as, 7.3∶13.9; _i. e._ 7 is more than 3, as 13 is more than 9.

⬜ quadrate, or regular quadrangle,—viz. ⬜AB=⬜BC; _i. e._ the quadrangle upon the line AB is equal to the quadrangle upon the line BC.

△ triangle: as, △ABC=△ADC.

∠ an angle: as, ∠ABC=∠ADC.

⟂ perpendicular: as, AB⟂BC.

▭ rectangled parallelogram, or the product of two lines.

∥ the character of parallelism.

⧧ want of parallelism.

≚ equiangular, or similar.

⫨ equilateral.

▱ rhomboid.

◠ concentrix.

○ circle.

∟ right angle.

∫ integration, (_summa_ or sum).

° denotes a degree: thus, 45° implies 45 degrees.

´ a minute: thus, 50´ is 50 minutes; ´´, ´´´, ´´´´, denote seconds, thirds, and fourths; and the same characters are used where the progressions are by tens, as it is here by sixties.

∺ the mark of geometrical proportion continued, implies the ratio to be still carried on without interruption: as, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64 ∺ are in the same uninterrupted proportion.

√ When used without a figure above it, indicates the square root, and is called the radical sign. Any other root is expressed by the index figure placed above the sign. √16 is the square root of 16, ∛27 the cube root of 27, &c.

≅ difference equal.

∹ the difference, or excess.

Q or q, a square.

C or c, a cube.

QQ, the ratio of a square number to a square number.

In algebraical work, authors should be very exact in their copy, and compositors as careful in following it, so that no alterations may be necessary after it is composed, the over-running of this kind of matter being troublesome and costly.

CELESTIAL AND ASTRONOMICAL SIGNS.

_The Twelve Signs of the Zodiac._

♈ Aries. ♉ Taurus. ♊ Gemini. ♋ Cancer. ♌ Leo. ♍ Virgo. ♎ Libra. ♏ Scorpio. ♐ Sagittarius. ♑ Capricornus. ♒ Aquarius. ♓ Pisces.

_The Sun and Major Planets._

☉ Sun. ☿ Mercury. ♀ Venus. 🜨 Earth. ♂ Mars. ♃ Jupiter. ♄ Saturn. ⛢ Uranus. ♇ Neptune.

⚳ Ceres, ⚴ Pallas, ⚵ Juno, ⚶ Vesta, [symb] Astræa, [symb] Hebe, [symb] Iris, and the other asteroids, or minor planets, are now commonly designated by a circle enclosing a number which indicates the order of their discovery: thus, ①, ②, ③, &c.

_Lunar Signs._

🌚 New Moon. 🌛 First Quarter. 🌝 Full Moon. 🌜 Last Quarter.

_Aspects and Nodes._

☌ Conjunction; happens when two planets stand under each other in the same sign and degree.

☍ Opposition; happens when two planets stand diametrically opposite each other.

△ Trine; happens when one planet stands from another four signs, or 120 degrees, which make one-third of the ecliptic.

□ Quartile; happens when two planets stand three signs from each other, which make 90 degrees, or the fourth part of the ecliptic.

⚹ Sextile; is the sixth part of the ecliptic, which is two signs, and make 60 degrees.

☊ The Dragon’s Head, or ascending node, and

☋ The Dragon’s Tail, or descending node, are the two points in which the eclipses happen.

_Planets that denote the Seven Days of the Week._

_Dies Solis_—Sunday. _Dies Lunæ_—Monday. _Dies Martis_—Tuesday. _Dies Mercurii_—Wednesday. _Dies Jovis_—Thursday. _Dies Veneris_—Friday. _Dies Saturni_—Saturday.

Many signs and symbols have been invented by pseudo-astronomers to impose upon the credulity of the ignorant; among which are signs to give notice on what day it is proper to let blood, to bathe and to cup, to sow and to plant, to take physic, to have one’s hair cut, to cut one’s nails, to wean children, and many other absurdities; as well as symbols that serve to indicate hail, thunder, lightning, or any occult phenomena.

ECCLESIASTICAL SIGNS.

℟ Response, used in prayer-books.

℣ Versicle, used in prayer-books to denote the part recited by the priest.

✠ or ✝ A sign of the cross employed by Roman Catholic ecclesiastical dignitaries before their signatures. In Roman Catholic prayer-books, it also denotes the place where the priest is to make the sign of the cross.

* Used in Roman Catholic prayer-books to denote the place in a single verse where the response begins.

MEDICAL SIGNS AND ABBREVIATIONS.

℞ stands for _Recipe_, or Take.

ā, aa, of each a like quantity.

℔ a pound.

℥ an ounce.

ʒ a drachm.

℈ a scruple.

j stands for 1; ij for 2; iij for 3; and so on.

ss. signifies _semi_, or half.

gr. denotes a grain.

P. stands for _particula_, a little part, and means so much as can be taken between the ends of two fingers.

P. æq. stands for _partes æquales_, or equal parts.

q. s. _quantum sufficit_, or as much as is sufficient.

q. p. _quantum placit_, or as much as you please.

s. a. _secundem artem_, or according to art.

METAL RULES OR DASHES.

Metal Rules or dashes, [⸺] like quadrates, are commonly cast from one em to three ems in length. When cast to line and join accurately, they may be used instead of brass rule.

BRACES.

Braces [⏞] are used chiefly in tables of accounts, botanical and geological tables, and similar matter. They are placed before or after a series of items of similar import; and are sometimes used horizontally in the margin, to cut off a chronological or other series from the proper notes or marginal references of the work. Braces, two, three, and four ems in length, are now cast for all sizes of common type.

_Middles_ and _ends_ are also cast, [[symb]] which can be filled out with dashes to any length required for the brace. Middles and ends are convenient in genealogical tables, in which they are used the flat way, and in which the directing point is not always in the middle.

Brass braces of any length, for music and jobbing purposes, are furnished by type-founders.

SPACES.

Spaces are short blank types, and are used to separate one word from another. To enable the compositor to space even and to justify with nicety, they are cast to various thicknesses,—viz. five to an em, [[symb]] or five thin spaces; four to an em, [[symb]] or four middle spaces; three to an em, [[symb]] or three thick spaces; and two to an em, [[symb]] or two en quadrates, which may with propriety be reckoned among the number of spaces. Besides these, there is what is called the hair-space, which is cast extremely thin, and is found useful in justifying lines and assisting uniformity in spacing.

TWO-LINE LETTERS

Are equal in depth to two lines of the type in which they are to be used, and of proportionate width. They form the almost only proper type for principal lines in title-pages, and are used at the beginning of chapters and newspaper advertisements.

QUADRATES.

An em quadrate [■] is a short blank type, in thickness equal to the square of the letter of the fount to which it belongs; an en quadrate [▮] is half that size.

The first line of a paragraph is usually indented an em quadrate; but when the matter is leaded or the measure is wide, an em and en, or two or even three ems may be used. An em quadrate is the proper space after a full-point when it terminates a sentence in a paragraph.

En quadrates are generally used after the semicolon, colon, &c., and sometimes after an overhanging letter. They are useful in spacing.

Em and en quadrates, and figures as well, should be entirely exact and uniform in body, as even a trifling variation will be apparent when they are arranged in table or figure-work; and no ingenuity on the part of a compositor can rectify the zigzag appearance caused by irregular types.

The inconvenience arising from founts of the same body not agreeing in depth is great, where the quadrates, through necessity, are sometimes mixed. The founts cast by MacKellar, Smiths & Jordan are not liable to this charge, as their moulds for all regular type of a specific size harmonize perfectly, and the quadrates and spaces work together.

QUOTATIONS.

Quotations are large blank type used for filling up considerable spaces at the beginning or end of a chapter, and also for job-work. They are cast to two sizes, and are called broad and narrow. They vary in size according to the standard of the foundry where they are cast. They are being superseded, however, by

This is cast with great accuracy to Pica, of assorted widths and lengths; and, as its name imports, it serves not only for quotations in general job-work, but also for furniture.

Owing to the large assortment of sizes contained in this furniture, it is useful for blanking out all varieties of work, from the card or circular to the large hand-bill or poster. As the above metal furnitures are not liable to warp or shrink, they form a highly economical substitute for wooden reglet.