Part 22

Words ending in silent _e_ after _u_ or a consonant generally drop the _e_ on taking an additional termination beginning with a vowel; as, sale, _salable_; plague, _plaguy_; sue, _suing_; eye, _eying_.

EXCEPTION I.—Words ending in _ce_ and _ge_ retain _e_ before _able_ and _ous_; as, service, _serviceable_; trace, _traceable_; courage, _courageous_; advantage, _advantageous_.

EXCEPTION II.—Compounds and prefixes retain _e_; as, _firearms_, _foreordain_, _pole-axe_, _vice-admiral_, _fire-engine_.

_Remark._—From singe, springe, swinge, tinge, we write _singeing_, _springeing_, _swingeing_, _tingeing_, to distinguish from _singing_, _springing_, _swinging_, and _tinging_. _Dyeing_, from dye, retains _e_, to distinguish it from _dying_, the present participle of die. Mile retains _e_ in _mileage_. Derivatives from proper names of persons retain _e_; as, _daguerreotype_, _morseograph_.

RULE II.

Words ending in silent _e_ generally retain the _e_ on taking an additional termination beginning with a consonant; as, bereave, _bereavement_; issue, _issueless_.

_Remark._—_Awful_, _awfully_, _awfulness_, _argument_, _argumentation_, _argumentative_, _woful_, _wofully_, _wofulness_, _duly_, _truly_, and _wholly_, are undisputed exceptions; and _abridgment_, _acknowledgment_, _judgment_, _misjudgment_, _prejudgment_, _lodgment_, _wobegone_, and _rhymster_, are disputed exceptions. Some write _abridgement_, _acknowledgement_, _judgement_, _misjudgement_, _prejudgement_, _lodgement_, _woebegone_, and _rhymester_.

RULE III.

Words ending in _ie_ change them into _y_ before _ing_; as, lie, _lying_. The following words conform to this rule:—

lie belie outlie lie overlie underlie die hie tie untie vie outvie

RULE IV.

Words ending in _y_ preceded by a consonant generally change _y_ into _i_ on taking an additional syllable; as, mercy, _merciful_, _merciless_; defy, _defied_, _defies_, _defieth_, _defiant_; busy, _busier_, _busiest_, _business_; ply, _pliers_; porphyry, _porphyritic_.

EXCEPTION I.—_Y_ after a consonant is not changed into _i_ before _ing_ or _ish_; as, _dry_, _drying_, _dryish_.

EXCEPTION II.—Compounds usually retain _y_; as, _mercy-seat_, _county-town_, _dairy-maid_, _skylight_.

_Remark._—_Dryer_, _dryest_, _dryly_, _dryness_, _shyer_, _shyest_, _shyly_, _shyness_, are undisputed exceptions to the rule; and _slyer_, _slyest_, _slyly_, _slyness_, are disputed exceptions.

RULE V.

Words ending in _y_ preceded by a vowel retain the _y_; as, gay, _gayly_, _gayness_, _gayety_; pray, _prayer_, _praying_, _prayed_, _prays_.

_Remark._—From day, lay, pay, say, stay, are formed _daily_, _laid_, _paid_, _said_, _saith_, _staid_. The regular words _dayly_, _layed_, _payed_, _sayeth_, and _stayed_, are sometimes used.

RULE VI.

Monosyllables and words having the primary accent on the last syllable, when they end with a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, double their final consonant before an additional syllable that begins with a vowel; as, wet, _wetter_, _wettest_, _wetting_, _wetted_; drum, _drumming_, _drummed_; dispel, _dispelling_, _dispelled_.

EXCEPTION.—A final _x_, or the _s_ in gas, should not be doubled; as, fix, _fixes_, _fixed_, _fixing_; annex, _annexing_; _gases_, _gasefy_.

_Remark I._—_U_ after _q_ is never reckoned a part of a diphthong or triphthong; so that from quit are formed _quitting_, _quitted_; and from quag, _quaggy_.

_Remark II._—This rule applies only to derivatives which retain the accent of their primitives, and not to such as _in´ferable_, _in´ference_, _pref´erable_, _pref´erence_, _ref´erable_, and _ref´erence_, from infer, prefer, and refer. To the forms _infer´rible_, _refer´rible_, which are sometimes met with, the general rule applies. _Transfer´able_, from transfer, is an exception to the general rule; the regular form _transfer´rible_ is not often used. Although _parallel´ogram_, from par´allel, and _modal´ity_ from mo´dal, remove the primary accent to the point of duplication, they do not double the final _l_. See Remark II. under Rule VII.

RULE VII.

A final consonant is not doubled when it is preceded by a diphthong, when the primary accent is either not on, or not retained upon, the last syllable, or when the additional syllable begins with a consonant; as, beat, _beating_, _beaten_; dif´fer, _dif´fering_, _dif´fered_, _dif´ference_, _dif´ferent_; prefer´, _pref´erence_; refer´, _ref´erence_; fit, _fitful_, _fitly_, _fitness_; ben´efit, _ben´efited_, _ben´efiting_.

EXCEPTION I.—Compounds that remove the primary accent from the point of duplication retain the double letter; as, _broad´-brimmed_, _heel´-tapping_.

_Remark I._—When _ly_ is affixed to words ending in _l_, the l is not considered doubled; as in _cool-ly_, _real-ly_, _gravel-ly_, _royal-ly_.

_Remark II._—_Nutmegged_, _kidnapping_, _kidnapped_, _kidnapper_, _zigzagging_, _zigzagged_, _excellence_, and some others, are undisputed exceptions to the rule. There are nearly one hundred words, from which more than four hundred derivatives are formed, that are usually made exceptions to this rule. Webster is distinguished for making nearly all the derivatives conform to the rule. Webster and Smart accent the verb _curv´et_, on the first syllable, with which accentuation _curveting_ and _curveted_ are correct spellings; other orthoepists accent upon the last syllable, then _curvet´ting_ and _curvet´ted_ are correct.

RULE VIII.

Words ending in _c_ accept of _k_ before a termination beginning with _e_, _i_, or _y_; as, frolic, _frolicked_, _frolicking_; colic, _colicky_.

ILLUSTRATIONS.

colic colicky

frolic frolicking frolicked

havoc havocking havocked

mimic mimicking mimicked mimicker

physic physicking physicked

rollic rollicking rollicked

traffic trafficking trafficked trafficker

talc talcky

zinc zinckiferous (zinciferous) zincky

RULE IX.

Words ending in a double letter preserve it double after a prefix or before a termination beginning with a different letter; as, _op-press_, _mis-spell_, _in-thrall_, _oversee_; _see-ing_, _op-pressive_, _stiff-ness_, _woo-ed_, _still-ness_, _assess-ment_.

_Remark I._—_Annul_, _until_, _twibil_, and the conservative _fulfil_, or the Websterian _fulfill_, are the only exceptions to the first part of this rule extensively recognized by present usage. The conservative _distil_ and _instil_ are at variance; but the Websterian _distill_ and _instill_, and also _twibill_, as written by Reid, are in harmony with the rule.

_Remark II._—_Pontific_, and all other derivatives of pontiff, are exceptions to the latter part of this rule, unless an _f_ is discarded in the primitive word, as Webster suggests and the derivation warrants. The derivatives of dull, full, skill, and will, are disputed exceptions: if spelled as Webster writes them, _dullness_, _fullness_, _skillful_, _willful_, they conform to the rule.

RULE X.

The plural is usually formed from the singular by adding _s_; as, brave, _braves_; night, _nights_; hymn, _hymns_.

RULE XI.

Nouns ending in _o_ preceded by a vowel accept of _s_ in the plural; as, cameo, _cameos_; studio, _studios_.

ILLUSTRATIONS.

agios bagnios bamboos braggadocios cameos cuckoos curculios embryos folios imbroglios intaglios internuncios koodoos nuncios olios oratorios pistachios port-folios punctilios ratios seraglios solfeggios studios trios

RULE XII.

Nouns ending in _y_ preceded by a vowel accept of _s_ in the plural; as, money, _moneys_; attorney, _attorneys_; valley, _valleys_.

RULE XIII.

Nouns ending in _o_ preceded by a consonant usually accept of _es_ in the plural; as, echo, _echoes_; embargo, _embargoes_.

_Remark._—There are more than fifty words that conform to this rule, and about thirty that accept of _s_ only.

ILLUSTRATIONS.

archipelagoes armadilloes bilboes bravadoes bravoes buffaloes buffoes calicoes cargoes desperadoes echoes embargoes farragoes frescoes grottoes gustoes heroes innuendoes juntoes lazarettoes lingoes lumbagoes mangoes manifestoes mottoes mulattoes negroes palmettoes passadoes peccadilloes potatoes prunelloes punchinelloes punctoes ranchoes recitativoes relievoes renegadoes ritornelloes rotundoes stilettoes supercargoes testudoes tomatoes tornadoes torpedoes umboes vetoes violoncelloes viragoes volcanoes zeroes

EXCEPTIONS.

albinos cantos centos dominos duodecimos halos hidalgos inamoratos lassos limbos major-domos mementos merinos mosquitos octavos pianos porticos provisos quartos rancheros ridottos rondos salvos set-tos sirocos solos torsos tyros

It would be well if all words ending in _o_ were made to conform to Rules XI. and XIII.

RULE XIV.

Nouns ending in _ss_, _z_, _x_, _ch_ soft, and _sh_, accept of _es_ in the plural; as, dress, _dresses_; buzz, _buzzes_; box, _boxes_; peach, _peaches_; dish, _dishes_.

RULE XV.

Nouns ending in _y_ after a consonant change _y_ into _ies_ in the plural; as, city, _cities_; daisy, _daisies_.

RULE XVI.

Compound nouns whose parts are connected by a hyphen accept of the sign of the plural after that part which essentially constitutes the noun; as, knight-errant, _knights-errant_; son-in-law, _sons-in-law_; man-of-war, _men-of-war_; step-child, _step-children_; ember-day, _ember-days_; man-singer, _men-singers_.

ILLUSTRATIONS.

aides-de-camp beaus-ideal or beaux-ideal cartes-blanche charges-d’affaires chevaux-de-frise coups-de-main courts-martial cousins-german daughters-in-law fathers-in-law gendarmes or gens d’armes jets d’eau knights-errant mesdames men-of-war messieurs mothers-in-law poets-laureate porte-monnaies prices-current sergeants-at-arms sisters-in-law sons-in-law step-children step-fathers valets-de-chambre

_Remark I._—If no hyphen is used, the sign of the plural is always placed at the end; as, spoonful, _spoonfuls_.

_Remark II._—The sign of the possessive case is always placed at the end of compound nouns; as, _son-in-law’s_ house.

RULE XVII.

The compounds of man form their plural in the same manner as the simple word; as, fisherman, _fishermen_; man-of-war, _men-of-war_.

EXCEPTIONS.—The only exceptions to this rule are _dragoman_, _Mussulman_, _Ottoman_, _talisman_, _Turcoman_, _German_, _Norman_, and _landamman_, which accept of _s_.

RULE XVIII.

Of the terminations _eive_ and _ieve_, and of the derivatives of each, the former are found after _c_, and the latter after other letters; as, _conceive_, _conceit_, _receive_, _receipt_; _relieve_, _relief_, _relieving_, _thieve_, _thievish_.

ILLUSTRATIONS.

achieve aggrieve bas-relief belief believe conceit conceivable conceive deceit deceitful deceive disbelief disbelieve grief grieve inconceivable lief lieve misbelief misconceive perceive preconceive receipt receive relief relieve relievo reprieve retrieve sieve thief thieve unbelief unbeliever undeceive

* * * * *

_Plurals of Nouns which change F or FE into VES._

beeves calves elves halves knives leaves lives loaves selves sheaves shelves thieves tipstaves wharves wives wolves

All other nouns ending in _ff_ conform to Rule X. Wharfs prevails in Great Britain, wharves in America.

_Plurals of Nouns ending in F or FE which accept of S only in the Plural._

briefs chiefs fiefs griefs mischiefs kerchiefs neckerchiefs handkerchiefs caliphs caufs clefs coifs delfs dwarfs turfs kerfs surfs fifes strifes safes scarfs waifs woofs hoofs roofs proofs reproofs disproofs waterproofs beliefs reliefs gulfs

_Plurals of Nouns ending in EAU, IEU, and OU._

beaux bureaux chapeaux chateaux flambeaux plateaux rondeaux jets d’eau portmanteaus purlieus adieux batteaux bijoux morceaux rouleaux tableaux

A number of these nouns admits of two forms in the plural.

HOW TO SECURE COPYRIGHTS.

1. A _printed_ copy of the title (besides the two copies to be deposited after publication) of the book, map, chart, dramatic or musical composition, engraving, cut, print, photograph, or a _description_ of the painting, drawing, chromo, statue, statuary, or model or design for a work of the fine arts, for which copyright is desired, must be sent by mail or otherwise, _prepaid_, addressed:

_Librarian of Congress, Washington, D. C._

This must be done before publication of the book or other article.

The _printed title_ required may be a copy of the title page of such publications as have title pages. In other cases, the title must be printed expressly for copyright entry, with name of claimant of copyright. The style of type is immaterial, and the print of a type-writer will be accepted. But a separate title is required for each entry, and _each_ title must be printed on paper as large as commercial note. The title of a _periodical_ must include the date and number.

2. A fee of 50 cents, for recording the title of each book or other article, must be enclosed with the title as above, and 50 cents in addition (or one dollar in all) for each certificate of copyright under seal of the Librarian of Congress, which will be transmitted by early mail.

3. Within ten days after publication of each book or other article, two complete copies of the best edition issued must be sent, to perfect the copyright, with the address:

_Librarian of Congress, Washington, D. C._

The postage must be prepaid, or else the publications inclosed in parcels covered by printed Penalty Labels, furnished by the Librarian, in which case they will come FREE by mail, according to rulings of the Post Office Department. Without the deposit of copies above required the copyright is void, and a penalty of $25 is incurred. No copy is required to be deposited elsewhere.

4. No copyright is valid unless notice is given by inserting in every copy published, on the title-page or the page following, if it be a book; or, if a map, chart, musical composition, print, cut, engraving, photograph, painting, drawing, chromo, statue, statuary, or model or design intended to be perfected as a work of the fine arts, by inscribing upon some portion thereof, or on the substance on which the same is mounted, the following words, viz.: “_Entered according to act of Congress, in the year ⸺, by ⸺ ⸺, in the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington_,” or, at the option of the person entering the copyright, the words: “_Copyright, 18—, by ⸺_.”

The law imposes a penalty of $100 upon any person who has not obtained copyright who shall insert the notice “_Entered according to act of Congress_,” or “_Copyright_,” etc., or words of the same import, in or upon any book or other article.

5. Any author may reserve the right to translate or to dramatize his own work. In this case, notice should be given by printing the words “_Right of translation reserved_,” or “_All rights reserved_,” below the notice of copyright entry, and notifying the Librarian of Congress of such reservation, to be entered upon the record.

Since the phrase, _all rights reserved_, refers exclusively to the author’s right to dramatize or to translate, it has no bearing upon any publications except original works, and will not be entered upon the record in other cases.

6. The original term of copyright runs for twenty-eight years. _Within six months before_ the end of that time, the author or designer, or his widow or children, may secure a renewal for the further term of fourteen years, making forty-two years in all. Applications for renewal must be accompanied by explicit statement of ownership, in the case of the author, or of relationship, in the case of his heirs, and must state definitely the date and place of entry of the original copyright. Advertisement of renewal is to be made within two months of date of renewal certificate, in some newspaper, for four weeks.

7. The time within which any work entered for copyright may be issued from the press is not limited by any law or regulation, but depends upon the discretion of the proprietor. A copyright may be secured for a projected work as well as for a completed one.

8. A copyright is assignable in law by any instrument of writing, but such assignment must be recorded in the office of the Librarian of Congress within sixty days from its date. The fee for this record and certificate is one dollar, and for a certified copy of any record of assignment one dollar.

9. A copy of the record (or duplicate certificate) of any copyright entry will be furnished, under seal, at the rate of fifty cents each.

10. In the case of books published in more than one volume, or of periodicals published in numbers, or of engravings, photographs, or other articles published with variations, a copyright is to be entered for each volume or part of a book, or number of a periodical, or variety, as to style, title, or inscription, of any other article. But a book published serially in a periodical, under the same general title, requires only one entry. To _complete_ the copyright on such a work, two copies of each serial part, as well as of the complete work (if published separately), must be deposited.

11. To secure a copyright for a painting, statue, or model or design intended to be perfected as a work of the fine arts, so as to prevent infringement by copying, engraving, or vending such design, a definite description must accompany the application for copyright, and a photograph of the same, at least as large as “cabinet size,” should be mailed to the Librarian of Congress within ten days from the completion of the work or design.

12. Copyrights cannot be granted upon trade-marks, nor upon mere names of companies or articles, nor upon prints or labels intended to be used with any article of manufacture. If protection for such names or labels is desired, application must be made to the Patent Office, where they are registered, at a fee of $6 for labels and $25 for trade-marks.

13. Citizens or residents of the United States only are entitled to copyright.

14. Every applicant for a copyright should state distinctly the full name and residence of the claimant, and whether the right is claimed as author, designer, or proprietor. No affidavit or formal application is required.

OFFICE OF THE LIBRARIAN OF CONGRESS, _Washington, 1885_.

THE METRIC SYSTEM.

The Metric System is a decimal system of measures and weights, based on the meter as its unit, which originated in France during the last decade of the eighteenth century, and has since been adopted by the greater number of States in Europe and America. In the United States its use was authorized in 1866 by Act of Congress. The length of the _meter_ was intended to be one ten-millionth part of the distance from the equator to either pole, measured at the level of the sea, but it is in reality a trifle less. All other units for measuring and weighing are derived from it, and the higher or lower denominations of the same kind of measure are obtained by multiplying or dividing its unit by tens, and prefixing to its name the Greek numerals, _deka_ 10, _hekto_ 100, _kilo_ 1000, or _myria_ 10000, for the higher denominations, and the Latin numerals, _deci_ 1/10, _centi_ 1/100, or _milli_ 1/1000, for the lower. The unit of weight, called the _gram_, is theoretically the weight in vacuo of a cubic centimeter of distilled water at the temperature of maximum density assumed to be 4° C. or 39° 1 Fe.

Including the meter and gram, five units have been adopted in the metric system, viz.:—

1. The Meter, the unit of length, = 3.280899 feet = 39.37079 inches.

2. The Are, the unit of surface, = 1 square dekameter = 119.60332 square yards.

3. The Liter, the unit of capacity, = 1 cubic decimeter = 0.26418635 gallon = 1.0567454 quarts.

4. The Stere, the unit of solidity, = 1 cubic meter = 35.336636 cubic feet = 1.308764 cubic yards.

5. The Gram, the unit of weight, = 15.43234874 grains troy.

For practical purposes the following are commonly used as units, viz.:—

For itinerary measure, the kilometer = 0.62138 mile. For land measure, the hektare = 2.47114 acres. For commercial weight, the kilogram = 2.20462125 pounds. The nickel five-cent piece, coined since 1866, weighs exactly 5 grams.

METRIC EQUIVALENTS OF ENGLISH MEASURES AND WEIGHTS.

LONG MEASURE.

1 inch = 2.540 centimeters. 1 foot = 3.048 decimeters. 1 yard = 9.144 decimeters. 1 rod = 5.0291 meters. 1 mile = 1.6093 kilometers.

SQUARE MEASURE.

1 acre = 40.467 ares.

LIQUID MEASURE.

1 gill = 1.1831 deciliters. 1 pint = 4.7325 deciliters. 1 quart = 9.4650 deciliters. 1 gallon = 3.786 liters.

DRY MEASURE.

1 pint = 5.5067 deciliters. 1 quart = 1.1013 liters. 1 peck = 8.8108 liters. 1 bushel = 3.524 dekaliters.

AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT.

1 ounce = 2.835 dekagrams. 1 pound = 4.5359 hektograms.

TROY WEIGHT.

1 grain = 6.480 centigrams. 1 ounce = 3.1103 dekagrams. 1 pound = 3.7324 hektograms.

TABLE FOR REDUCING POUNDS AND OUNCES TO KILOGRAMS.