Part 21
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_An Ink for Marking Tin or Zinc._—An ink composed of copper one part, dissolved in ten parts nitric acid, ten parts water being afterward added, is useful for marking on tin or zinc.
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_Quick-drying Preparations for Printers’ Inks to be used on Bookbinders’ Cases._—1 oz. beeswax, ¼ oz. gum-arabic dissolved in sufficient acetic acid to make a thin mucilage, ¼ oz. Brown’s Japan, ½ oz. asphaltum varnish. Incorporate with 1 lb. of wood-cut ink.
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_A Dryer._—No. 1, for fine job work. Damar varnish 6 oz., bergamot 2 drachms, balsam copaiba 2 drachms, balsam of fir 3 oz., creosote 1 drachm, copal varnish 1 drachm. To enough ink for 1000 ordinary business cards, add from 8 to 12 drops of the “Indispensable,” and to larger quantities in proportion. When used for bronze, dry colours, diamond printing, etc., take twice the quantity; and where an extra quick dryer is desired, add a few drops of dissolved gum-arabic to the ink, after it has been mixed with No. 1. In all cases, mix well with the ink before applying to the rollers.
_Dryer._—No. 2.—For news and poster ink. Spirits of turpentine 1 qt., balsam copaiba 6 oz. Add a sufficient quantity to the ink to thin it to a proper consistency for working.
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_Silvering Solution for Electrotype Plates._—Nitrate of silver 2 drachms, distilled water 37 drachms. Dissolve and add sal ammoniac 1 drachm, hypophosphate of soda 4 drachms, precipitated chalk 4 drachms. Agitate the preparation occasionally for twelve hours, when it will be ready for use. Apply with a piece of fine sponge.
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_How to coat Electrotypes with Silver._—Electrotypes can be coated with silver (for working with red ink) in the following manner: One part copper, 5 parts pure tin; this alloy to be granulated, not too fine, and mixed with water and cream of tartar into a paste. To each 200 parts of the granulated alloy add 1 part oxide silver, the electro is then laid in it, and boiled for a short time, when it will be found to be beautifully plated. Fresh oxide must be added from time to time. This coating is quite equal in durability to silver or tin.
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_To soften Leather Belting._—Castor oil is a good article for keeping leather belting soft and pliable.
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_How to open a Ball of Twine._—A ball of twine, if opened from the inside, will run off easily enough and give no trouble in the untwining; but if begun from the outside, it will speedily get tangled and knotted.
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_To prevent Adhesion._—M. GARDE, in _l’Imprimerie_, tells paper-makers how to obviate the inconvenience of the adhesion together of sized papers, on damping, by the coagulation of the size. This is effected in the mills, by dipping the sheets in a solution of alum or tannin. A secondary advantage obtained is that the paper becomes tougher.
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_To detect ground Wood in Paper._—Mix three parts of strong nitric acid with one part of sulphuric acid: a drop of this solution will immediately turn paper containing an admixture of ground wood a brown colour.
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_French Gold Printing._—French copal varnish 1 oz., mastic varnish ¼ of an oz.; mix together and add twenty drops to the black ink table, and distribute; take an impression and apply, with wool, gold leaf, Dutch metal, or bronze. Apply the bronze with cotton wool and rub _hard_ over the black ink. After each fifty printed, wipe off the superfluous gold from the type with a silk handkerchief.
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_Transfer Varnish._—Take equal quantities of fir balsam and spirits turpentine. Mix, shake well, and set in a warm place until clear. Used in decalcomania, and for maps, prints, drawings, and other articles of paper; and also to prepare tracing papers, and to transfer engravings.
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_To make Paper Waterproof._—Dissolve 8 oz. of alum and 3⅓ oz. of white soap in 4 pints of water. In another vessel dissolve 2 oz. of gum-arabic and 4 oz. of glue in 4 pints of water. Mix the two solutions and heat them over the fire. Then immerse the paper, sheet by sheet, in the hot liquid, then hang them up edgewise to dry, or pass them between heated cylinders.
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_Books Preserved._—The bindings may be preserved from mildew by brushing them over with the spirits of wine. A few drops of any perfumed oil will secure libraries from the consuming effects of mould and damp. Russia leather, which is perfumed with the tar of the birch tree, never moulds or sustains injury from damp. The Romans used oil of cedar to preserve valuable manuscripts. Russia leather covered books placed in a stationer’s window will destroy flies and other insects.
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_To restore Engravings, etc._—Old engravings, wood-cuts, or printed matter, that have turned yellow, may be rendered white by first washing carefully in water containing a little hyposulphite of soda, and then dipping for a minute in Javelle water. To prepare the latter, put 4 lbs. bicarbonate of soda in a kettle over a fire; add 1 gallon of boiling water, and let it boil for fifteen minutes. Then stir in 1 lb. of pulverized chloride of lime. When cold, the liquid can be kept in a jug ready for use.
ORTHOGRAPHICAL.
A thorough reformation of the orthography of the English language, desirable as it is, can scarcely be hoped for in this century; though doubtless the time will come when an international convention will settle authoritatively the spelling of every word, as acceptably as has been done by the Academies of France and Spain in regard to the orthography of the languages of those countries.
_A or AN before a Vowel or silent H._
In regard to the use of the indefinite article, Walker’s Dictionary very judiciously says,—
“This indefinite, and, as it may be called, the _euphonic_ article, is said by all our grammarians to be used before a vowel or _h_ mute; but no notice is taken of using _a_ instead of _an_ before what is called a vowel, as, _a useful book_, _a useful ceremony_, _a usurer_, &c.; nor is any mention made of its constant usage before _h_ when it is not mute, if the accent of the word be on the second syllable, as, _an heroic action_, _an historical account_, &c. This want of accuracy arises from a want of analyzing the vowels, and not attending sufficiently to the influence of accent on pronunciation. A proper investigation of the power of the vowels would have informed our grammarians that the letter _u_, when long, is not so properly a vowel as a semi-consonant, and perfectly equivalent to commencing _y_, and that a feeling of this has insensibly influenced the best speakers to prefix _a_ to it in their conversation, while a confused idea of the general rule, arising from an ignorance of the nature of the letters, has generally induced them to prefix _an_ to it in writing. The same observations are applicable to the _h_. The ear alone tells us that, before _heroic_, _historical_, &c., the _an_ ought invariably to be used; but, by not discovering that it is the absence of accent on the _h_ that makes _an_ admissible in these words, we are apt to prefix _an_ to words where the _h_ is sounded, as, _an horse_, _an house_, &c., and thus set our spoken and written language at variance. The article _a_ must be used before all words beginning with a consonant, and before the vowel _u_ when long; and the article _an_ must be used before all words beginning with a vowel, except long _u_; before words beginning with _h_ mute, as, _an hour_, _an heir_, &c.; or before words where the _h_ is not mute, if the accent be on the second syllable, as, _an heroic action_, _an historical account_, &c.” The few words in our language in which the _h_ is mute are _heir_, _herb_, _honest_, _honour_, _hospital_, _hostler_, _hour_, _humble_, _humour_, and their derivatives.
_O, or OH._
_Oh_ should be used to express surprise, pain, sorrow, or anxiety. When the interjection is followed by a proper name, or as an exclamation of wishing the _O_ should be employed singly, thus: _O mother dear, Jerusalem!_ _O Lord!_ _O that I might find him._
_ABLE and IBLE._
All English words, without regard to the source from which they have been derived, and those which come from Latin words ending in _abilis_ or French ones in _able_, take the termination _able_ in English, as, _procurable_, _amendable_, _desirable_, _allowable_, _voidable_, _available_, _fordable_, _incontestable_, &c.; but in words from Latin and French words terminating in _ibilis_ or _ible_, then the ending will be _ible_ in English. For instance: _accessible_, _sensible_, _defensible_, _convertible_, &c.
In words ending in _ce_ or _ge_, the final _e_ is preserved before the termination _able_, for the purpose of indicating the soft sound of the consonant, as in _marriageable_, _chargeable_, _traceable_, _serviceable_, &c.; but before the ending _ible_ the final _e_ of the primitive disappears, and there is no _e_ before the termination. Examples: _deducible_, _reducible_, _frangible_, &c.
The following list of words in _ible_ is here added; all others end in _able_:—
accessible admissible adustible appetible apprehensible audible cessible coercible collectible comminuible compatible competible comprehensible compressible conceptible conclusible congestible contemptible contractible controvertible convertible convincible corrigible corrosible corruptible credible deceptible decerptible decoctible deducible defeasible defectible defensible depectible deprehensible descendible destructible digestible discernible discerptible dispraisible dissolvible distensible divisible docible edible effectible eligible eludible enforcible evincible expansible expressible extendible extensible fallible feasible fencible flexible forcible frangible fusible horrible ignoscible illegible immarcessible immiscible[23] impassible[24] intelligible irascible legible miscible partible passible[25] perceptible permiscible permissible persuasible pervertible plausible possible producible quadrible reducible referrible reflexible refrangible regible remissible reprehensible resistible responsible reversible revertible risible seducible sensible solvible tangible terrible transmissible visible
_IM or IN, and EM or EN._
The prefix _in_ is from the Latin, and that of _en_ from the French and Greek. _In_ generally signifies _situation_, and _en_ mostly expresses _action_. Hence, perhaps, in strictness, _inclose_ will signify “to close in,” and _enclose_, “to make close.” So, to _inquire_ will be “to seek _in_, or to search in,” and _enquire_, to “make search.” _Immigrate_, “to pass into;” _emigrate_, “to go out of.” But this distinction is not attended to by writers, and is, indeed, too refined for general practice.
Before the letters _b_ and _p_, _en_ becomes _em_, as in _embattle_, _empower_; and _in_ before some letters becomes _ig_, _il_, _im_, or _ir_, as in _ignoble_, _illegal_, _improper_, _irresolute_.
We give a list of those generally spelt with _im_ or _in_; leaving it to be inferred that the rest are more usual with _em_ or _en_.
imbarn imbibe imboil imbound imbrue imbrute imbue imburse immanacle immense immerge immerse immigrate immingle immit immix immure impact impale imparadise impassioned impawn impeach impearl impel impen imperil impinge implant implead import impose impound impregnate impress imprint imprison inarch incase inclasp inclip incloud include incrassate increase incur indart indent indict indite indoctrinate indrench induce induct ineye infer infest inflix inflame inflate inflect inflict infringe infuscate infuse ingrane ingest inhabit inhale inhere inhold inhume initiate inject inlapidate inlay inlet inoculate inosculate inquire inrail inscribe insculp inseam insert inset inshell inship insinew insphere inspire inspirit install instate insteep instil instop insure inter intertwine intort intreasure intrench intrude intrust inumbrate inure inurn invade inveigh invert invest invigorate invite invocate invoice invoke inwall inweave
_IN and UN._
_In_, as a prefix, also marks _negation_: it is probable that it came from the Romans. _Un_, as a prefix, is synonymous with _in_: it is of Saxon origin, and generally joined to words from a northern source; while _in_ is oftener applied to those of Latin derivation.
_ISE and IZE._
The variation in the terminations _ise_ and _ize_ is due to the different derivations of words,—_ize_ characterizing words from the Greek and Latin, and _ise_ from the French. The rule, however, is not inflexible. The following words are commonly spelled with the _s_.
advertise advise affranchise aggrandise amortise catechise chastise circumcise comprise compromise criticise demise despise devise disfranchise disguise divertise emprise enfranchise enterprise exercise exorcise galliardise manumise merchandise misprise (mistake) premise recognise reprise (take again) supervise surmise surprise
_OR and OUR._
The ending _our_ was in general use until the appearance of Webster’s Dictionary, in which the _u_ was dropped in words terminating with _our_. This innovation has steadily gained ground. We do not approve of partial tinkerings with English orthography; and, until a general convention of British and American scholars settle the method of spelling English words, we shall adhere to the established usage. We append a list of words terminating in _our_.
arbour ardour armour behaviour candour clamour clangour colour contour demeanour dishonour dolour endeavour favour fervour flavour harbour honour humour labour neighbour odour parlour rancour rigour rumour savour saviour splendour succour tambour tumour valour vapour vigour
The _u_ is dropped when the termination _ous_ is added to any of these words; as, _clamorous_, _dolorous_, _humorous_, _laborious_, _odorous_, _rancorous_, _rigorous_, _valorous_, _vigorous_. And also in derivative words; such as _armory_, _honorary_, &c.
_SION and TION._
_Primitive words_ which end in _d_, _de_, _ge_, _mit_, _rt_, _se_, or _ss_, take _sion_ in their derivatives; but all other words have _tion_.
EXAMPLES.
abscin_d_, abscission condescen_d_, condescension eva_de_, evasion intru_de_, intrusion abster_ge_, abstersion emer_ge_, emersion ad_mit_, admission re_mit_, remission reve_rt_, reversion conve_rt_, conversion confu_se_, confusion revi_se_, revision impre_ss_, impression confe_ss_, confession admi_x_, admixtion promo_te_, promotion
IRREGULARS.
adhesion cohesion compulsion declension decursion depulsion dissension divulsion evulsion exesion expulsion impulsion incursion propulsion recension recursion revulsion scansion tension transcursion version attention causation distention distortion coercion suspicion crucifixion
_FARTHER and FURTHER._
_Farther_ is nowadays only employed when speaking of _distance_; in all other acceptations of the word, _further_ is generally adopted.
_PEAS and PEASE._
There are scarcely any words in which a mistake is more frequently made than in _peas_ and _pease_. Yet the distinction between them is simple and well defined. _Peas_ is the plural of _pea_, and, consequently, only follows _numeral_ adjectives; as, “_ten_ peas,” “a _hundred_ peas,” “a _few_ peas,” “_many_ peas;” but _pease_ is used when speaking of the legumen in the aggregate, or generally. Thus, we correctly say, “_Pease_ are dear this year,” “_Pease_ were plentifully supplied to the horses,” &c.
_Pease_ is also employed adjectively; as, “_pease_-pudding,” “_pease_-soup,” or “_pea_-soup,” &c.
_The Omission of S in the Possessive Case._
It is not uncommon with some persons to omit the _s_ after the apostrophe in the possessive case of nouns, if the name itself ends in _s_; as, “_James’_ book,” “_Barnes’_ Notes.” But this is incorrect; for if we ask, Whose book? we should directly answer, _James’s_. The only case when the _s_ can be judiciously omitted, and this solely to avoid the too hissing sound of so many _s_’s in succession, is when the first word ends with the sound of _s_ in its last two syllables, and the next word begins with _s_; as in _Misses’_ spectacles, _righteousness’_ sake, _conscience’_ sake.
_Formation of the Plurals of Words compounded of a Noun and an Adjective._
Adjectives have no plural number. Therefore, in a word compounded of a noun and an adjective, the _s_ denoting the plural number is attached to the end of the noun, as follows:—
Governor-general Governors-general. Attorney-general Attorneys-general. Court-martial Courts-martial.
But where the adjective is taken substantively, the mark of the plural will properly follow it. For example: _Brigadier-generals_, _major-generals_, _lieutenant-generals_.
Words compounded of a noun and the adjective _full_ form their plurals thus: _spoonfuls_, _cupfuls_, _bucketfuls_, _handfuls_, _mouthfuls_.
_Pointing of Numbers, Weights, Measures, &c._
No comma should be placed between the constituent parts of the same number, however long it may be. Thus, we say, “One million one hundred thousand five hundred and twenty-one,” without any interpunction. The reason is, that there is no more than _one_ numerical aggregate intended, or but _one_ complex notion; and, consequently, no separation of parts or members can take place. The same reasoning holds good as respects _values_, _weights_, &c. For instance, when we say, “Six dollars and ten cents,” we merely mean that aggregate amount, but not necessarily any one of the coins indicated. If we did so intend, then two commas should be introduced,—one after “dollars,” and the other after “cents.” In like manner we should act with such sentences as, “Five tons three hundredweight two quarters and fifteen pounds;” or, “Ten acres four roods and twenty-seven perches;” and for the same reason: no division of parts is intended, but merely one aggregate amount.
When figures are used to express amounts, a comma should not be inserted to cut off the tens unless the sum requires five figures: _e.g._ $10,600, 20,000 men, &c. In column matter this rule will not apply.
_Derivation of English Words._
Of course the Saxon forms the basis of our language in its essential parts, and is the source whence we derive the greater part of our ordinary and most emphatic words. Nevertheless, various other languages have been put under contribution, especially the French, Latin, and Greek. This will be evident from the following statement of derivations, which will show the unlearned reader how important it is to him that he should acquire some knowledge of those languages, if he desires to attain to a thorough proficiency in his business as an educated printer.
I. From the Greek are derived—
1. Words ending in _gram_, _graph_, and _graphy_; as, _telegram_, _telegraph_, _geography_, &c.; from the word γράφω, (_grapho_,) I write, and some other Greek word.
2. Those in _gon_; from γωνια, (_gonia_,) an angle; as, _octagon_.
3. All words in _logue_ or _logy_; as, _epilogue_, _astrology_; from λόγος, (_logos_,) a discourse.
4. _Ic_, _ick_, _ics_ are also Greek terminations, generally of adjectives.
5. Words in _meter_ are all of Greek origin, coming from the verb μετρῶ, (_metro_,) I measure, in combination with some other word.
6. Most words into which the terminations _agogue_, _asis_, _esis_, or _ysis_ enter are also of Greek origin; such as _demagogue_, _emphasis_, _parenthesis_, _analysis_, &c.
II. But the main source whence we have derived words, with the exception of the Saxon, is the Latin, as will appear from an inspection of the following list:—
1. Words ending in _ance_, _ancy_, or _ant_, and _ence_, _ency_, or _ent_, come from Latin words ending respectively in _ans_, _antia_, or _ens_, _entia_; as, _abundance_, from _abundantia_; _infancy_, from _infantia_; _abundant_, from _abundans_; _absence_, from _absentia_; _excellency_, from _excellentia_; and _excellent_, from _excellens_.
2. Words in _al_ have their Latin representatives in _alis_; as, _corporal_, from _corporalis_.
3. Verbs in _ate_ mostly come from Latin verbs of the first conjugation; as, _moderate_, from _modero_.
4. Words in _ator_ are generally the same in both languages; as, _orator_, _senator_, _moderator_.
5. The termination _id_ comes mostly from Latin words ending in _idus_; as, _acid_, from _acidus_; but sometimes words of this ending are of Greek origin; as, _oxide_, (more correctly, _oxyd_,) from ὀξὺς, (_oxys_;) and, indeed, most scientific words of this ending; as, _carotid_, from καρώτιδες, &c.; _rhomboid_, from ῥομβοειδής.
6. _Il_ or _ile_ is likewise from the Latin termination of adjectives in _ilis_; as, _docile_, from _docilis_; _civil_, from _civilis_.
7. The Latin termination _osus_ has its English representative in _ious_ or _ous_; as, _copious_, from _copiosus_; _numerous_, from _numerosus_. But sometimes the English ending _ous_ comes from a Latin word in _ax_; as, _capacious_, from _capax_.
8. The Latin ending _io_ has its English corresponding word in _ion_; as, _nation_, from _natio_; _oration_, from _oratio_.
9. The endings _ne_, _re_, and _te_ after a vowel are also for the greater part of Latin origin; as, _fortune_, from _fortuna_; _aquiline_, from _aquilinus_; _culture_, from _cultura_; _pure_, from _purus_; _complete_, from _completus_, &c.
10. Words in _ty_ come from Latin words in _tas_; as, _equality_, from _æqualitas_; _bounty_, from _bonitas_; _rarity_, from _raritas_, &c.
11. The termination _ude_ is also of Latin origin, coming from words in _udo_; as, _fortitude_, from _fortitudo_; _elude_, from _eludo_.
12. So also is _uous_, by inserting the letter _o_; as, _ambiguous_, from _ambiguus_; _continuous_, from _continuus_, &c.
III. From the French have come—
1. Most of our words in _age_; as, _page_, _rage_, _usage_.
2. All those in _eau_; as, _beau_, _flambeau_, &c.
3. The French _esse_ is represented by the English _ess_: as, _princess_, from _princesse_.
4. Words in _que_ mostly come to us from the French directly; some from the Latin directly or indirectly; as, _antique_, (L. _antiquus_, F. _antique_,) _oblique_, _opaque_.
5. Words ending in _ment_ are nearly the same in both languages; as, _commencement_, _advancement_, (F. _avancement_,) &c.
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We subjoin some rules for spelling, adapted from Laidlaw’s _American Pronouncing Dictionary_.[26]
RULE I.