Part 3

_Public opinion_, forsooth! And what is public opinion? What but an evanescent and a capricious thing—a fickle dame, ever varying, ever changing—that raises a man a hero and a demi-god to-day, and tramples him in the dust as a base wretch and outcast to-morrow? Look at the Protean aspects of public opinion in the different ages of the world, and among the different nations of the earth. Look at public opinion in the different epochs of the Roman empire, and of the Grecian states. Behold its changes. Look at it under the mighty Egyptian, Babylonian, Assyrian, Medean, and Persian dynasties. Compare public opinion at the present day in China, with that in the United States. Compare it among our rude Saxon forefathers, with that which prevailed in the days of William the Conqueror. And in English society, what mighty changes has it not undergone since the days of Henry the Eighth. Look at the changes produced on public opinion by a Solon, a Zoroaster, a Pythagoras, a Homer, a Socrates, or a Plato; an Alexander, a Cæsar, or an Alfred. See the tyrant bow its neck to the mild, but sublime influence of the Gospel, wherever it has been introduced. See it bend again before the influence of philosophy, science, and the arts, and, more especially, before improvements in our political and civil codes. And are we to be told, then, that, amid the full glare of light and knowledge which beams upon us, we are passively and submissively to bow to this capricious tyrant, and not dare to raise our voices against its cruel and absurd edicts? No. Reason forbids it; morality forbids it; Heaven forbids it. Let the light of science and morality, then, clear the mist from our eyes; and let us go on to _refine_ and _correct_ public opinion, until every vestige of barbarism and superstition are expunged from our herald-roll. And what is duelling but a vestige of barbarism that has too long formed a foul blot upon our national escutcheon?

Mobile, March 12th, 1839.

ARTICLE IV.

REMARKS ON THE POSSIBILITY OF INCREASING THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CEREBRAL ORGANS BY ADEQUATE EXERCISE OF THE MENTAL FACULTIES. By Andrew Combe, M. D.

(Continued from No. 6 of this Journal, page 191.)

The next enquiry, and one of not less moment, is to discover _why the increase does not follow in every instance_? and what are the conditions which favour it? Multitudes of the young, engaged in the same mental exercise, manifest no proportionate increase of power or organ; and yet, if the rule holds good in one instance, there must be causes for every exception, and to these I shall now direct a few remarks, but necessarily of a crude and imperfect kind.

The first impeding cause is one already alluded to. On looking at the analogous instance of muscular increase from muscular action, it will be granted at once that, in some constitutions, there is a much greater susceptibility of change than in others. In the nervous system, the same principle of the influence of the original type undoubtedly holds good; and while some are easily susceptible of mental impressions and cerebral improvement, others are the reverse. Here, then, is one ground of difference of result.

Another fact in regard to muscular development is, that while it is favoured by due exercise, it is prevented alike by insufficient and by excessive action, and that _what constitutes due exercise to one, may be insufficient for another, and excessive for a third_. From this follows the acknowledged axiom—That exercise ought to be adapted in kind and degree to the individual constitution, otherwise it will fail to increase either the muscles or the general strength. I have elsewhere[1] shown that the same law applies to the brain and nervous system, and that, if we act regardless of its existence, we inevitably fail in successfully attaining our object. From ignorance of physiology, however, on the part of teachers and parents, and ignorance of the connection subsisting between the brain and the mind, this law has been utterly neglected in practice. In our larger schools, accordingly, we have from one hundred to one hundred and fifty boys in each class, or from five hundred to six hundred in all, subjected to precisely the same amount of work, and to the same general management, in so far as the period of confinement and mental activity are concerned; and the individual powers and wants of each constitution are as little consulted, as if the whole were cast of the same material, and the same mould—and the result is what we behold and lament. In some, the degree of mental exercise is adapted to their capability, and they improve; in others, it falls much short, and their powers languish from inaction; while in a third portion it goes as far beyond the limit, and their minds and organs are worn out and impaired.

Healthy vigour is another essential to healthy growth, whether of the brain or of the body; but, from general ignorance of physiology, this has been, and still is, equally disregarded in the treatment of the young. In our public schools, the whole pupils of a large class are set to the same task, and undergo precisely the same confinement and absence of wholesome bodily action. It matters not whether they be robust or weak, indolent or vivacious, fond of play or fond of books. It never occurs to us that what may be sport to one is a heavy burden to another; and that the length of confinement, and absence of food, which a robust boy can withstand, may seriously injure one of a weaker constitution. It is needless to add, that nothing can be less in accordance with the dictates of a sound physiology than the ordinary arrangements of our schools; and, judging from the very inadequate results with which so much labour is repaid, and the very indifferent health which attends it, it may be inferred, that no discipline can be less in accordance with the laws of nature, or less available as a means of improving the minds and brains of those who are subjected to it. The young, on account of their growing and rapid nutrition, stand doubly in need of a pure and bracing air, and of ample muscular exercise out of doors; and yet, so entirely is this condition disregarded in our plans of education, that in the winter the whole day is spent in the close and corrupted atmosphere of the school, and the exercise is restricted to little more than walking to and from it. It is in vain to think that the brain is not injured in its development, and the mind not weakened in its powers, by this neglect. The brain partakes in the general qualities of the constitution. If the body be imperfectly nourished and supported, the brain is weakened in common with the rest of the system, and the mind is retarded in its progress, and often impaired in vigour, by otherwise inadequate causes.

Another circumstance which tends in youth to impede the vigorous growth of the brain and impair its action, and which owes its existence equally to ignorance of the laws of physiology, is error in diet. No fact can be more certain, or, indeed, is more generally admitted, than that the young require wholesome nourishing food, in larger quantities and at shorter intervals than when arrived at maturity. Accordingly, undue abstinence is admitted to be very hurtful in early life. And yet, notwithstanding the abstract acknowledgment of the fact, the practice of society is diametrically opposed to it, to the manifold injury of the young. The proper interval which ought to separate breakfast from dinner, because that at which vigorous appetite usually returns in healthy and active young people, is from four to five hours.[2] Beyond that time, waste goes on without any compensating supply, and exhaustion consequently follows, attended by weariness and a deteriorated state even of the digestive organs. So far are we, however, from conforming to the indications of nature in this respect, that the prevailing plan is, to make young people breakfast early, say at eight o’clock, that they may go to school in time; and, instead of giving them a good dinner, with an hour or two of relaxation, about four or five hours later, their lessons are considered more necessary than food, and while they are pushed on almost without interruption, dinner is postponed till eight or nine hours after breakfast, being at least three, and often five, hours after the time at which it is wanted by nature.

From much observation I am persuaded, not only that the growth and activity of the brain are impaired by this sad conduct, but that a great deal of the delicacy and bad health of the rising generation, and particularly a great deal of the increasing liability to dyspepsia which pervades society, is owing to the same preposterous departure from the laws of the Creator. It is no apology for the evil to say that it cannot be helped—that there is so much to be learned that the whole day must be given to it. When we become wiser, we shall discover that it is easier and pleasanter to learn in accordance with, than in opposition to, nature’s laws; and if we were once convinced of the fact, there would be no difficulty in altering the practice. We all admit that sleep is necessary, and that nature intended the night for repose; and, consequently, neither parent nor teacher thinks of setting his child to school in the night-time, however anxious he may be for its progress. And, in like manner, let society once be convinced that food at proper intervals is essential to the well-being of the young, and both time and opportunity will be found for giving it.

Another cause of failure in invigorating a faculty, and increasing an organ by its active exercise, seems to be an inadequate temperament. What is excitement to the faculties and brain of a person of a quick nervous or sanguine temperament, may prove utterly unexciting to the faculties and brain of one with a low apathetic lymphatic temperament; and, consequently, improvement in the faculty and organ may follow in the former, while no change on either will occur in the latter. The susceptibility will thus vary according to the nature of the original constitution; and hence, in attempting to develope any mental power, we can expect to be successful only when we are certain that we have really the means of exciting and keeping up its activity. A mere passing stimulus will not suffice to increase nutrition and growth.

Perhaps, also, we sometimes fail from applying a wrong stimulant. In seeking to improve a faculty, common sense dictates that it should be exercised upon its most agreeable and perfect productions. Thus, in cultivating a _taste for music_, we ought to present to the faculty the most beautiful and harmonious music, because that is the best calculated to excite it to agreeable and sustained activity. Accordingly, such is the plan by which we cultivate the taste in communities. But when we take an individual who has naturally no great liking for music, but in whom it is desirable that the talent should be developed, we do not stimulate the faculty to healthful exercise by daily accustoming it to the perception and discrimination of fine sounds, but we set him or her to labour for hours every day in producing sounds, remarkable at first only for being so discordant and disagreeable as to make every one keep as far from their source as possible; and thus our aim is defeated, and the taste injured rather than improved. It is true, that by stoical perseverance some arrive ultimately at the power of producing sounds pleasing to their own ears; but it will be found that it is only then that their musical faculty _begins_ to be improved, and that its activity is felt to be delightful. Many never arrive at that point, and, after years of ineffectual labour, give up the attempt in despair.

I do not mean by these remarks, that _playing on an instrument_ should be taught merely by listening to good music. Playing is a mechanical exercise, calling other faculties into activity, and cannot be acquired without practice. Besides, playing is not music, but only the means by which it is produced; and, so far as regards the music alone, the enjoyment is quite as great _whoever_ produces it, as if we ourselves did. Often, however, the mistake is committed of thinking that we are using the most effectual means to develope a taste for music, when we place the young person at an old piano to rattle out discordant sounds for several hours a day; and we are grieved and disappointed at the ultimate failure of an experiment which, in the very nature of things, could not possibly succeed. By assiduous practice on an instrument we exercise the _mechanical_ faculties, and may thus develope _their_ organs to an increased extent. But to produce the same effect on the faculty of Tune, we must stimulate it to sustained activity, by daily accustoming it to the hearing of exquisite music, and by guiding the judgment to the appreciation of beauties. We may then hope to promote increased action and growth in its organ.

I believe that in regard to some of the other faculties we commit a similar mistake, and imagine that education fails to invigorate them and develope their organs, when, in fact, our endeavours have been wrongly directed, and could not be successful; but the present paper has run already to so great a length, that I must postpone any farther remarks on this part of the subject till another opportunity.

Before taking leave, however, I would again enforce the absolute necessity of physiological knowledge for the successful guidance of teachers and parents. If the size of the cerebral organs admits of being increased by judicious exercise, and impaired or retarded by mismanagement, it obviously becomes an indispensable qualification for those who undertake their right direction to possess an accurate acquaintance with the functions and laws of the animal economy; and it is rather strange that we should have gone on to the present day without such an obvious truth having been universally perceived and acted upon.

Having now shown, 1st, That judicious mental exercise promotes the development of the cerebral organs in youth; 2dly, That there is strong presumptive evidence in proof of the same effect taking place even in mature age; 3dly, That we are still little acquainted with other important physiological conditions which act powerfully in modifying the results of exercise; and 4thly, That the knowledge of these conditions would greatly extend the efficacy of moral and intellectual education, and multiply our means of advancing the moral welfare and happiness of the race; I do not require to add another word to induce phrenologists to collect additional evidence on all the doubtful points, and to prosecute the enquiry with persevering accuracy, and with a constant view to its important practical advantage.

[1] “Principles of Physiology,” &c. 5th edit. p. 292, &c.

[2] See “The Physiology of Digestion considered with Relation to the Principles of Dietetics.” Second edition, p. 198.

We have selected the above article from the “Edinburgh Phrenological Journal” for the purpose of calling the attention of phrenologists in this country to the important principles which it contains. The article comes from the pen of a gentleman who probably understands the physiology of the brain, and its real functions, better than any other man living. It is unnecessary for us to dwell on the importance of correctly understanding the above principles, as connected with phrenology, and the desirableness of collecting additional evidence, in order to elucidate them, and show their numerous applications to the various duties and pursuits of life. We would therefore solicit for publication in this Journal, facts showing the positive increase, either in _size_ or _activity_, of any particular organ or organs; and also communications tending to illustrate and establish more fully the truth of the enquiries proposed by Dr. Combe, respecting the true physiological laws of the brain.—ED.

ARTICLE V.

PHRENOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS AND CHARACTER OF WILLIAM MILLER, WHO WAS EXECUTED AT WILLIAMSPORT, PA., JULY 27TH, 1838, FOR THE MURDER OF SOLOMON HOFFMAN.

MR. EDITOR,—

Being in Williamsport, Pa., in the month of May, I was invited by James Armstrong, Esq., prosecuting attorney of Lycoming County, and Mr. Lloyd, high sheriff of said county, to examine the head of a William Miller, who was then in prison awaiting his trial for the murder of a German pedlar by the name of Hoffman. On entering his cell, I found a good looking, not to say a handsome young man, about twenty years of age, in irons, exhibiting no peculiar marks of intelligence, yet a vacuity of expression, a mysterious, reserved appearance, with a countenance somewhat downcast but rather sullen. On proceeding with the examination, I found it one of the most painfully interesting cases that had ever fallen under my observation. The developments and their combinations struck me at once as extremely unfavourable; and, upon this account, I took particular pains to obtain precise and accurate admeasurements. They were taken in the presence of the above named gentlemen, before the trial, and in the absence of all knowledge concerning the prisoner’s _real_ character, except that he was charged with murder.

It is to _these measurements_, rather than to any statements of my own, that I wish to call particular attention. They are as follows, including the integuments. The allowance generally made for these, is two-eighths of an inch; but, as his integuments were unusually thick, three-eighths of an inch should be deducted in the present case. This will give very accurately the measurements of the skull itself.

_Measurements of the Head_

Inches

Circumference of the head around Philoprogenitiveness, Secretiveness, and Eventuality, 21⅞ From Occipital Spine to Individuality, over Firmness, 12⅝ ” Destructiveness to Destructiveness, 7 ” Combativeness to Combativeness, 6½ ” Ear to Firmness, 6⅜ ” ” Benevolence, 4¾ ” ” Individuality, 5

The _general_ configuration of the head was not less interesting than the particular developments. Whilst the heads of highly moral and intellectual men generally measure from one and a half to three inches more from Individuality to Philoprogenitiveness than from Destructiveness to Destructiveness, _his_ head was nearly round. The coronal region was poorly developed. The sides of the head were bulged out to an extraordinary extent, whilst it was flattened behind, evidently indicating deficient social feelings. The cerebral fibres were very short from the ear to the organs in the anterior lobe of the brain, as well as from the ear to Adhesiveness and Philoprogenitiveness. His head was somewhat above the average size. His body was strong and well built, yet the quality of his organisation was rather gross. His temperament was principally lymphatic bilious, with some of the sanguine, but scarcely any traces of the nervous.[3] Such a temperament is much more favourable to the exercise of physical than mental power, and to the manifestations of the animal propensities than of the moral sentiments and the intellectual faculties.

Having observed the organisation of the body, and of the _general_ form of the head, I commenced a minute comparison of the relative size of the respective organs. The result is as follows:—

Amativeness, full. Philoprogenitiveness, average. Adhesiveness, moderate. Inhabitiveness, full. Concentrativeness, large. Combativeness, large. Destructiveness, very large.+ Alimentiveness, large. Acquisitiveness, very large.+ Secretiveness, very large. Cautiousness, large. Approbativeness, moderate. Self-esteem, very large. Firmness, very large. Conscientiousness, small. Hope, large. Marvellousness, moderate. Veneration, full. Benevolence, moderate. Imitation, average. Ideality, small. Constructiveness, full. Mirthfulness, moderate. Individuality, full. Form, full. Size, large. Weight, full. Colour, moderate. Order, average. Calculation, full. Locality, large. Eventuality, average. Tune, uncertain. Time, ” Language, average. Causality, ” Comparison, ”

I shall describe only the _extremes_ of development, and the general result of their respective combinations in activity. The organs located in the sides of the head were the first to arrest my attention. It was the development, not of any _one_ of these organs (selfish propensities), but the immense size of the _whole_ of them, acting without the restraints of either the intellect or the moral sentiments, which would constitute the leading features of character. Acquisitiveness, Secretiveness, Destructiveness, Self-esteem, and Firmness, were all “very large;” Combativeness and Cautiousness were “large,” with Benevolence, Ideality, and Adhesiveness, “moderate.” Any well informed phrenologist can easily predicate the effects resulting from such combination.

His predominating Acquisitiveness and Self-esteem would render him _supremely_ selfish, and incline him (Conscientiousness being deficient) to appropriate things to himself, without regard to the principles of justice or the right of others. His Secretiveness, Destructiveness, Firmness, and Combativeness, with average intellect, would enable him to devise and execute plans with tolerable success for gratifying his selfish feelings. Still he had not sufficient Causality to plan on a large scale, nor to adapt means to ends successfully in the long run. He would deal principally in “little things.” Conscientiousness and Benevolence would but feebly remonstrate against any measures, however unjust or cruel, which his other faculties might devise and carry into effect. Having weak Adhesiveness and Benevolence, and very large Secretiveness, he would be unsocial, almost destitute of friendship, spend most of his time _by himself_, would have few intimates, and no confidants among his acquaintances or even relatives. Few persons would know any thing concerning him; a mystery would hang over all his affairs and conduct.

His “very large” Secretiveness and Acquisitiveness doubtless held predominant sway in his character. These, unrestrained, would lay claim to, and appropriate to himself, that which did not belong to him, by fraud, deception, stealth, cheating, pilfering, &c. And Destructiveness “very large” would add to these, robbery and even murder. Having little sympathy or affection, with this organisation, I should not be surprised to learn that even his relatives and friends had fallen victims to his predominating Acquisitiveness and Destructiveness.

There is one faculty in particular which must have entered very largely into the composition of his character—viz. Secretiveness. He was doubtless very sly, artful, and full of plots and stratagems. While he would be cunning, and make few, if any, confessions or acknowledgments, still he did not possess great fore-thought or penetration. But in the art of dissembling, and making false pretensions, he must have been a perfect adept.