Part 24
Siebert, W. H: work cited, 23, _footnote_, 49, _footnote_
Sigel, Franz: 215, _footnote_
Simon, Ben: 329, _footnote_
Sioux: uprising, 21, _footnote_; warriors, 227, _footnote_
Slaughter, Thomas C: 208
Slavery: in Kansas, 22; encouraged, 22; among Southern Indians, 22, 292; influence of churches upon, 37; white men to prevent abolition among Indians, 42; opposition among Choctaws and Chickasaws, 45; is being interfered with by intruders, 47; cause in jeopardy among Cherokees, 48; North to exterminate among Indians, 145; recognized as legal institution by treaties, 166 and _footnote_; offers easy solution of labor problem, 219; Cowart reports complaints of interference with, 293
Slaves: 22, 142, 143, 144-145, 165, 166, _footnote_, 167, _footnote_, 172, 216, 261
Smith, Andrew J: charges against, 41, _footnote_
Smith, Caleb B: 74, _footnote_, 183, 242, 271, 274, 275
Smith, E. Kirby: 100, _footnote_
Smith, John G: 192
Smith, William R: work cited, 108, _footnote_, 109, _footnote_
Snow, George C: 198, _footnote_, 199, _footnote_
Southern Baptist Convention: 39, _footnote_
Southern Baptists: 38, 39
South Carolina: 20, _footnote_
Southern Indians: 18, 21, 32, 34, 36
Southern Methodists: 38, 39, 40
Southern Superintendency: 30, _footnote_
Sparrow, Edward: 127
Spencer Academy: 40, _footnote_, 75, 76, 78
Springfield: 214, _footnote_, 217, 255, 283, 312, 334
Spy companies: reported equipped by Federals, 306
Stand Watie: 49, _footnote_, 137, _footnote_, 153, 156, _footnote_, 227, 240, 283, 324
Stanton, Edwin M: 276, 279
Stanwood, Edward: work cited, 106, _footnote_
Stark, O. P: 76
State Department (C. S. A.): Albert Pike, commissioner from, 134, _footnote_, 152; Bureau of Indian Affairs, part of, 188, _footnote_
Stephens, Alexander H: work cited, 118, _footnote_, 119, _footnote_
Stevens, R. S: 209, _footnote_
Stevens, Thaddeus: 210, _footnote_
Stidham, G. W: 194
Stocks: 61, 76, 203, _footnote_
Stockton, G. B: 107, _footnote_, 186, _footnote_
Strain, J. H: 285, 287
Sturm, J. J: 199, 201, _footnote_, 330, 331, 353, 357
Sumner, Charles: 45, _footnote_
Sur-cox-ie: 268, _footnote_
Surveyors: 53
Tahlequah: 39, _footnote_, 93, 188, _footnote_, 217, and _footnote_, 218, _footnote_, 226, 234, 237, 293
Tallise Fixico: 194
Tatum, Mark T: 50, _footnote_, 104, _footnote_, 296
Taylor, J. W: 193, _footnote_
Taylor, N. G: 30, _footnote_
Tennessee: Cherokees from, 20; John J. Humphreys from, 185
Tenney, W. J: work cited, 90, _footnote_
Tents: furnished to refugees, 261
Territorial expansion: 28, 58
Territorial form of government: 30, 31, _footnote_, 33
Texas: indigenous tribes in, 19, _footnote_; Indians expelled from, 19, _footnote_, 52, 340; Cherokees in, 20, _footnote_; annexed, 28; troops from, 53; Indian patronage, 59; Indian participation in Civil War, 63; interest in Indian Territory, 67; interest in securing alliance of Indians, 83, 88, 90; interest in amnesty provisions of Indian treaties, 175-176; commissioners from, 183; attitude of northern countries of, 200, _footnote_; desires Reserve Indians placed under her jurisdiction, 297
Texas Historical Association _Quarterly_: work cited, 20, _footnote_
Texas Superintendency: 56, _footnote_
Thomason, Hugh F: 202, 335
Thompson, Jacob: 45, _footnote_, 46, 54, 56, _footnote_
Tishomingo: county of, 68, _footnote_
Tonkawas: 52 and _footnote_, 189, _footnote_, 200, 201, _footnote_, 340, 353
Toombs, Robert: 129, 131, 134 and _footnote_, 135, _footnote_, 152
Totten, James: 103, 104
Traders: 22, 27, 59-60, 169 _et seq._, 193, _footnote_, 238-239, 319
Trammel, Dennis: 288, 289
Treat, S. B: 43, _footnote_
Treaties: 34, _footnote_, 37, _footnote_, 53, 78, 84, _footnote_, 102, 117, 122, _footnote_; made with Indians as with foreign powers, 17; Ohio desires information as to Manypenny, 33, _footnote_; relations to U. S. in, 70, _footnote_; obligation to abide by, 71, _footnote_; reduction of forts violation of guaranties in, 97, _footnote_; resulting from council at Tahlequah, 237 _et seq._; with the Cherokees in part the result of intimidation, 240, _footnote_; with the Neosho Agency Indians, 241; money due the Creeks under, 289; Pike reports all ratified, 320; amendments to, 323; manuscript copies of, 329-330, _footnote_; no Indian Department to be organized until ratification of, 331; terms of the, with the wild Indians, 352; Leeper makes a, with the Comanches, 354-355
TROOPS: _Confederate_--in Cherokee country, 136, _footnote_; no Arkansas, available, 253, _footnote_; Van Dorn's erroneous surmise as to proportion of white, in Pike's brigade, 280; Van Dorn's plans as to disposition of, 283; Leeper inquires when, may be expected, 310; Pike's confidence in white, 320; lack of, in Leased District, 343, 349; non-arrival of, 345. _Indian_--Confederacy secure before negotiation of treaties of alliance, 207; plans for distribution of, 207; Cherokee, under McCulloch, 226-227; Northern, offer to furnish U. S. with, 227, _footnotes_; large and increasing number in Indian Territory, 252; not possible to keep order, 346. _United States_--few within Indian country, 52-53; Secretary Floyd disposed to withdraw from Indian frontier, 53; from Texas ordered to protect U. S. surveyors, 53; number to be retained in Indian country queried, 72, _footnote_; Carruth reports all gone from Indian Territory, 86, _footnote_; ordered to leave, 87 and _footnote_; disposition, reported upon by Texas commissioners, 95; under Emory ordered to Indian Territory, 96 _et seq._; flee from Indian Territory, 101; dissatisfaction at reported change in disposition in Arkansas, 103, 105; to counteract influence of secessionists, 216; method of warfare under Lane, 233; Dole urges to re-occupy Indian Territory, 241; sudden withdrawal spreads alarm in Leased District, 299
_True Democrat_: work cited, 47, _footnote_, 48, _footnote_, 106, _footnote_
Tuckabatche Micco: 51, _footnote_
Tuckabatchee Town: 193, _footnote_
Tulsey Town: 255
Turnbull, John P: 189, _footnote_
Turner, J. W: 260, 272, _footnote_
Tusaquach: 247
Tush-ca-horn-ma: district of, 179
Twiggs, D. E: 55, _footnote_, 87
Umatilla: suggested territory of, 32, _footnote_
Underground railroad: 40
Upper Arkansas Agency: 210, _footnote_
Upper Creeks: 50, 208, _footnote_, 191, _footnote_, 192, 193, _footnote_, 236, _footnote_, 244, 319
Usher, John P: 56, _footnote_, 228, _footnote_
Van Buren (Ark.): 64, _footnote_
Van Dorn, Earl: 55, 138, _footnote_, 280, 283
Vann, Joseph: 217, 223
Verdigris River: 259, 272
Wah-pa-nuc-ka Institute: 40, _footnote_
Walker, David: 116, 298
Walker, Leroy P: 119, 127, 142, 147, 151, 161, 200, _footnote_, 207, 215, _footnote_
Walker, William: head chief of the Wyandots, 22, _footnote_
Walker, William: 105, _footnote_
Wall, David: 23, _footnote_
Walnut Creek: 259
War Department: C. S. A., 128, _footnote_, 139, _footnote_, 140, _footnote_, 193, _footnote_, 257, _footnote_; U. S. A., 52, 80, 87, 96, 228, _footnote_, 234, 241, 250, 264-265, 275
Washburn, J. W: 84, _footnote_, 164, _footnote_, 238, and _footnote_
Washita: Indians driven from country of, 19, _footnote_
Wattles, Augustus: 229, _footnote_
Waul, Thomas N: 127, 205
Weas: from Illinois, 19
Weber's Falls: 86, _footnote_
Welch, George W: 84, _footnote_
West Florida: seizure of, 28
West Point: 215, _footnote_
Wheelock: Choctaw school, 39, _footnote_
White, Joseph: 209, _footnote_
White, S. W: letter of, 33, _footnote_
White Cloud: 227, _footnote_
Whitney, Henry C: 208 and _footnote_
Whittenhall, Daniel S: 350
Wichita Agency: site for, 54, 56, _footnote_, 136, _footnote_; attack upon, 329, _footnote_
Wichita Mountains: 51, 55
Wichita Treaty: 157, _footnote_, 158, 163, 176
Wichitas: 52; colonization of, 55; subsistence given to, 57, _footnote_; Leased District of, 63; colonized on land claimed as their own, 166; Pike hopes to meet, 189, _footnote_; Pike fears hostility of, 200; refuse to be cajoled or intimidated, 201
Wilson, Henry: work cited, 32, _footnote_
Wilson, William: 23, _footnote_
Wilson's Creek: battle of, 225
Winneconne: 219, _footnote_
Wisconsin: tribes from, 19
Wolcott, Edward: 273, _footnote_
Worcester, Reverend S. A: 23, _footnote_; opposed to slavery, 41
Wyandots: from Ohio and Michigan, 19; William Walker, head chief of, 22, _footnote_; initiate movement for organization of Nebraska Territory, 34; interested in Kansas election troubles, 34, _footnote_; Methodism, 38
Yancton Sioux: Agent Burleigh suggests that garrison Fort Randall, 227, _footnote_
Young, William C: 100
Yulee, David L: 238, _footnote_
FOOTNOTES:
[1] Confessedly much to its discredit, the United States government has never had, for any appreciable length of time, a well-developed and well-defined Indian policy, one that has made the welfare of the aborigines its sole concern. Legislation for the subject race has almost invariably been dictated by the needs of the hour, by the selfish and exorbitant demands of pioneers, and by the greed and caprice of politicians.
[2] There were, of course, other indigenous tribes to the westward, in the direction of Colorado and Texas, and to the northward, in southern Nebraska; but only the latter were more than remotely affected, as far as local habitation was concerned, by the coming of the eastern emigrants and the consequent introduction of the reservation system.
[3] Kansas Historical Society _Collections_, vol. viii, 72-109.
[4] In scarcely a single case here cited was the old home of the tribe limited by the boundaries of a single state nor is it to be understood that the state here mentioned was necessarily the original habitat of the tribe. It was only the territorial headquarters of the tribe at the time of removal or at the time when the policy of removal was first insisted upon as a _sine qua non_. Some of the Indians emigrated independently of treaty arrangements with the United States government and some did not immediately direct their steps towards Kansas or Oklahoma; but made, through choice or through necessity, an intervening point a stopping-place. The Kickapoos, the Shawnees, and the Delawares tarried in Missouri, the Choctaws and the Cherokees, many of them, in Arkansas but that was before 1830, the date of the removal law. After 1830, there was no possible resting-place for weary Indians this side of the Ozark Mountains.
[5] Some of the more insignificant southern Indians eventually found their way also to Oklahoma. In 1860 there were a few Louisiana Caddoes in the northwestern part of the Chickasaw country, most likely the same that, in 1866, were reported to have been driven out of Texas in 1839 by bushwhackers and then out of the Washita country at the opening of the Civil War. They continued throughout the war loyal to the United States. In 1853 the Choctaw General Council passed an act admitting to the rights of citizenship several Catawba Indians; and from that circumstance, the Office of Indian Affairs surmised that the Choctaws would be willing to incorporate Catawbas yet in the Carolinas. In 1857 there were about seventy Catawbas in South Carolina on a tiny reservation. They expressed an ardent wish to go among the Choctaws. In 1860 the Catawbas were in possession of the northeastern part of the Choctaw country.
[6] For the detailed history of events leading up to Indian removals, particularly the southern, see American Historical Association, _Report_, 1906, 241-450.
[7] Not all of the southern Indians had emigrated in the thirties and forties. A considerable number of Cherokees removed themselves from the country east of the Mississippi to Texas. This was immediately subsequent to and induced by the American Revolution [Texas Historical Association, _Quarterly_, July, 1897, 38-46 and October, 1903, 95-165]. Many Cherokees, likewise, took the suggestion of President Jefferson and moved to the Arkansas country prior to 1820. Moreover, there were "Eastern Cherokees" in controversy with the "Western Cherokees" for many years after the Civil War. Their endless quarrels over property proved the occasion of much litigation. In the late fifties active measures were taken by the Office of Indian Affairs to complete the removal of the Seminoles and to accomplish by intrigue and diplomacy what the long and expensive Second Seminole War had utterly failed to do. Elias Rector of Arkansas superintended the matter and the Seminole chief, John Jumper, gave valuable assistance, as did also the Creeks, who generously granted to the Seminoles a home within the Creek country west [Creek Treaty, 1856, Kappler's _Indian Laws and Treaties_, vol. ii, 757]. Billy Bowlegs was the last Seminole chief of prominence to leave Florida [Coe's _Red Patriots_, 198]. In 1853 there were still some four hundred Choctaws reported as living in Alabama and there must have been even more than that in Mississippi. In 1854 steps were taken, but unsuccessfully, for their removal. In 1859 Representative John J. McRae presented a petition from citizens of various Mississippi counties asking that the Choctaws be removed altogether from the state because of their intimacy and intercourse with the negroes. The Office of Indian Affairs refused to act. Perchance, it considered the moment inopportune or the means at hand insufficient. It may even have considered the charge against the Choctaws a mere pretext and quite unfounded since it was commonly reported that the Choctaws had a decided aversion to that particular kind of race mixture. In that respect they differed very considerably from the Creeks who to-day are said to present a very curious spectacle of an almost complete mixture. Choctaws from Mississippi and Cherokees from North Carolina and Catawbas from South Carolina fought with the South in the Civil War.
[8] Other Indians made trouble during the progress of the Civil War, as, for instance, the Sioux in the summer of 1862. The Sioux, however, were not fighting for or against the issues of the white man's war. They were simply taking advantage of a favorable occasion, when the United States government was preoccupied, to avenge their own wrongs.
[9] The existence of the "Cherokee Neutral Land" out of which the southeastern counties of Kansas were illegitimately formed was not exactly an exception to this. The Neutral Land, eight hundred thousand acres in extent, was an independent purchase, made by the Cherokees, and was not included in the exchange or in the original scheme that forced their removal from Georgia. It was a subsequent concession to outraged justice.
[10] By far the best instance of missionary activity in behalf of slavery among the northern Indian immigrants is to be found in the case of the Reverend Thomas Johnson's work at the Shawnee Mission [Ray's _Repeal of the Missouri Compromise_, footnote 207]. Johnson, like William Walker, head chief of the Wyandots, was an ardent pro-slavery advocate [_ibid._, footnote 205] and took a rather disgracefully prominent part in the notorious election frauds of early Kansas territorial days [House _Report_, 34th congress, first session, no. 200, pp. 14, 18, 94, 425].
[11] Buchanan's _Works_, vol. iii, 348, 350, 353.
[12] Siebert's _Underground Railroad from Slavery to Freedom_, 284.
[13] The most interesting case that came up in this connection was that of the so-called Beams' Negroes, resident in the Choctaw country and illegally claimed as refugees by John B. Davis of Mississippi [Indian Office, _Special Files_, no. 277]. The Reverend S. A. Worcester interested himself in their behalf [Jefferson Davis to Worcester, October 7, 1854] and a decision was finally rendered in their favor. Another interesting case of similar nature was, "In re negroes taken from Overton Love and David Wall of the Chickasaw Nation by Citizens of Texas, 1848-'57" [_ibid._, no. 278].
[14] Under the Intercourse Law of 1834, the Indian Territory had been annexed for judicial purposes to the western district of Arkansas. The Indians were much dissatisfied. They felt themselves entitled to a federal court of their own, a privilege the United States government persistently denied to them but one that the Confederate government readily granted. As matters stood, prior to the Civil War, the red men seemed always at the mercy of the white man's distorted conception of justice and were, perforce, quite beyond the reach of the boasted guaranties of theoretical Anglo-Saxon justice since the very location of the court precluded a trial by their peers of the vicinage. The journey to Arkansas, in those early days, was long and tiresome and expensive. Complications frequently arose and matters, difficult of adjustment, even under the best of circumstance. Among the Creeks and Seminoles, the status of the free negro was exceptionally high, partly due, with respect to the latter, to conditions growing out of the Second Seminole War. As already intimated, the Creeks had no aversion whatsoever to race mixtures and intermarriage between negroes and Indians was rather common. The half-breeds resulting from such unions were accepted as bona fide members of the tribe by the Indians in the distribution of annuities, but not by the United States courts--another source of difficulty and a very instructive one as well, particularly from the standpoint of reconstructionist exactions.
Occasionally the presence of the free negro within the Indian country was a source of grave danger. The accompanying letters outline a case in point:
HEAD QUARTERS 7TH. MIL: DEPT. FORT SMITH, March 5th. 1852.
SIR: By direction of the Colonel commanding the Department I transmit herewith copies of a communication from George Folsom, Chief of the Pushmataha District, to Colonel Wilson Choctaw Agent and one from Colonel William Wilson Choctaw Agent to Brevet Major Holmes commanding Fort Washita asking aid from the Military force.
As the letter from the Choctaw Agent is not sufficiently explicit as to what he wishes done by the Military authority the subject is referred to you, and if on investigation it be found that Military interference is necessary to enforce the intercourse law, prompt assistance will be rendered for the purposes therein specified, under the direction and in presence of the Choctaw Agent. Respectfully Yr Obt. Servt.,
FRANCIS N PAGE, Asst. Adjt. Genl.
Colonel John Drennen, Superintendent W. T.
_Inclosure_
CHOCTAW AGENCY, February 9th 1852
SIR: The enclosed copy of a letter from Colonel George Folsom Chief of Pushmataha District of the Choctaw Nation will put you in possession of the facts and reasons why I address you at this time.
As the position of the free Negros and Indians alluded to in the Chief's letter seems to be of rather a hostile character, having built themselves a Fort doubtless for the purpose of defending themselves if interupted in their present location, it seems to me necessary that they should be driven away if necessary by Military authority; and, as your post is the most convenient to the place where the Negroes and Indians are Forted I have thought that a command could be sent with less trouble and at less expense to the government by you than any one else. I would therefore most respectfully call upon you to take such steps as you may think most advisable to remove from the Choctaw country the persons complained of by the Chief, and if necessary call upon Chief Folsom to aid you with his light horse, who may be of much service to you in the way of Guides. Very Respectfully Yr. Obt Servt.
(Signed) WILLIAM WILSON, Choctaw Agent
[Endorsement] A true Copy, Francis N Page, Asst. Adjt. Genl.
_Inclosure_
PUSHMATAHA DISTRICT, January 23. 1852.
DEAR SIR: I spoke to you about those free negroes upon the head waters of Boggy, when I last saw you, requesting to have something done with them. I have just learned that the negroes and some Indians are banded together and have built themselves a little Fort. There is no doubt but that they will be a great trouble to us. One of our country judges sent for the light-horse-men to go and seize the negroes, but I have forbid them going, and many of our people wish to go and see them. I have forbid any body to go there with intentions to take them. It will no doubt be hard to break them up. You have probably just returned home, and it may seem tresspassing upon you to write you about those negroes and Indians, but you are our agent and we have the right to look to you for help. It seems to me this affair wants an immediate action on it.
I have simply stated to you how these negroes and Indians are Forted up that you may better know how to deal with them. In purforming your duties if I can in any way render you any assistance I shall always be happy to do so. Very respectfully Your friend
(Signed) GEORGE FOLSOM, Chief Push: Dist:
Col: William Wilson, Choctaw Agent [Endorsement] a true Copy, Francis N Page, Asst. Adjt. Genl.
[15] Buchanan's _Works_, vol. x, "the Catron letter," 106; "the Grier letter," 106-107.
[16] This was as it appeared to N. G. Taylor, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, as he looked back, in 1867, upon events of the past few years. He was then of the opinion that the very existence of slavery among the southern tribes had most probably saved their country from being coveted by emigrants going westward.
[17] One agency under the Southern Superintendency, the Neosho River Agency, was, however, included in the scheme preliminary to the organization of Kansas and Nebraska. See the following letters found in Thomas S. Drew's _Letter Press Book_:
(a) OFFICE SUPT. IND. AFFAIRS FORT SMITH, ARKS., Dec. 21, 1853.
SIR: Inclosed herewith you will receive letters from Agent Dorn, dated the 1st and 2nd instant; the former in relation to the disposition of the Indians within his agency to meet Commissioners on the subject of selling their lands, or having a Territorial form of Government extend over them by the United States: and the latter nominating John Finch as Blacksmith to the Great and Little Osages. Very respectfully Your obt. servt.
A. H. RUTHERFORD, Clerk for Supt.
Hon. Geo. W. Manypenny, Com{r} Ind. Affairs Washington City.
(b) OFFICE SUPT. INDIAN AFFAIRS FORT SMITH, ARKS. Dec. 29, 1853.
SIR: ... I have also to acknowledge the receipt of letters from you of the 2nd instant to the Commissioner of Ind. Affrs. upon the subject of the Indians within your Agency being willing to meet Commissioners on the part of the U. S. preparatory to selling their lands, or to take into consideration the propriety of admitting a Territorial form of Government extended over them &. ...
A. H. RUTHERFORD, Clerk for Supt.
A. J. Dorn, U. S. Indian Agt., Crawford Seminary.
[18] In this connection, the following are of interest: