Chapter 14
Antarctica is administered through meetings of the consultative member nations; decisions from these meetings are carried out by these member nations (with respect to their own nationals and operations) in accordance with their own national laws; US law, including certain criminal offenses by or against US nationals, such as murder, may apply extraterritorially; some US laws directly apply to Antarctica; for example, the Antarctic Conservation Act, 16 U.S.C. section 2401 et seq., provides civil and criminal penalties for the following activities, unless authorized by regulation of statute: the taking of native mammals or birds; the introduction of nonindigenous plants and animals; entry into specially protected areas; the discharge or disposal of pollutants; and the importation into the US of certain items from Antarctica; violation of the Antarctic Conservation Act carries penalties of up to $10,000 in fines and one year in prison; the National Science Foundation and Department of Justice share enforcement responsibilities; Public Law 95-541, the US Antarctic Conservation Act of 1978, as amended in 1996, requires expeditions from the US to Antarctica to notify, in advance, the Office of Oceans, Room 5805, Department of State, Washington, DC 20520, which reports such plans to other nations as required by the Antarctic Treaty; for more information, contact Permit Office, Office of Polar Programs, National Science Foundation, Arlington, Virginia 22230; telephone: (703) 292-8030, or visit their website at www.nsf.gov; more generally, access to the Antarctic Treaty area, that is to all areas between 60 and 90 degrees south latitude, is subject to a number of relevant legal instruments and authorization procedures adopted by the states party to the Antarctic Treaty
Economy Antarctica
Economy - overview:
Fishing off the coast and tourism, both based abroad, account for Antarctica's limited economic activity. Antarctic fisheries in 2005-06 (1 July-30 June) reported landing 128,081 metric tons (estimated fishing from the area covered by the Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR), which extends slightly beyond the Antarctic Treaty area). Unregulated fishing, particularly of Patagonian toothfish (Dissostichus eleginoides), is a serious problem. The CCAMLR determines the recommended catch limits for marine species. A total of 36,460 tourists visited the Antarctic Treaty area in the 2006-07 Antarctic summer, up from the 30,877 visitors the previous year (estimates provided to the Antarctic Treaty by the International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators (IAATO); this does not include passengers on overflights). Nearly all of them were passengers on commercial (nongovernmental) ships and several yachts that make trips during the summer. Most tourist trips last approximately two weeks.
Communications Antarctica
Telephones - main lines in use:
0; note - information for US bases only (2001)
Telephone system:
general assessment: local systems at some research stations domestic: commercial cellular networks operating in a small number of locations international: country code - none allocated; via satellite (including mobile Inmarsat and Iridium systems) to and from all research stations, ships, aircraft, and most field parties (2007)
Radio broadcast stations:
FM 2, shortwave 1 (information for US bases only); note - many research stations have a local FM radio station (2007)
Radios:
NA
Television broadcast stations:
1 (cable system with 6 channels; American Forces Antarctic Network-McMurdo - information for US bases only) (2002)
Televisions:
several hundred at McMurdo Station (US) note: information for US bases only (2001)
Internet country code:
.aq
Internet hosts:
7,748 (2008)
Internet Service Providers (ISPs):
NA
Transportation Antarctica
Airports:
27 (2008)
Airports - with unpaved runways:
total: 27 over 3,047 m: 6 2,438 to 3,047 m: 5 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 914 to 1,523 m: 9 under 914 m: 6 (2008)
Heliports:
53 note: all year-round and seasonal stations operated by National Antarctic Programs stations have some kind of helicopter landing facilities, prepared (helipads) or unprepared (2007)
Ports and terminals:
there are no developed ports and harbors in Antarctica; most coastal stations have offshore anchorages, and supplies are transferred from ship to shore by small boats, barges, and helicopters; a few stations have a basic wharf facility; US coastal stations include McMurdo (77 51 S, 166 40 E), and Palmer (64 43 S, 64 03 W); government use only except by permit (see Permit Office under "Legal System"); all ships at port are subject to inspection in accordance with Article 7, Antarctic Treaty; offshore anchorage is sparse and intermittent; relevant legal instruments and authorization procedures adopted by the states parties to the Antarctic Treaty regulating access to the Antarctic Treaty area, to all areas between 60 and 90 degrees of latitude south, have to be complied with (see "Legal System"); The Hydrographic Committee on Antarctica (HCA), a special hydrographic commission of International Hydrographic Organization (IHO), is responsible for hydrographic surveying and nautical charting matters in Antarctic Treaty area; it coordinates and facilitates provision of accurate and appropriate charts and other aids to navigation in support of safety of navigation in region; membership of HCA is open to any IHO Member State whose government has acceded to the Antarctic Treaty and which contributes resources and/or data to IHO Chart coverage of the area; members of HCA are Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Chile, China, Ecuador, France, Germany, Greece, India, Italy, NZ, Norway, Russia, South Africa, Spain, UK, and US (2007)
Military Antarctica
Military - note:
the Antarctic Treaty prohibits any measures of a military nature, such as the establishment of military bases and fortifications, the carrying out of military maneuvers, or the testing of any type of weapon; it permits the use of military personnel or equipment for scientific research or for any other peaceful purposes
Transnational Issues Antarctica
Disputes - international:
the Antarctic Treaty freezes, and most states do not recognize, the land and maritime territorial claims made by Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway, and the United Kingdom (some overlapping) for three-fourths of the continent; the US and Russia reserve the right to make claims; no claims have been made in the sector between 90 degrees west and 150 degrees west; the International Whaling Commission created a sancturary around the entire continent to deter catches by countries claiming to conduct scientific whaling; Australia has established a similar preserve in the waters around its territorial claim
This page was last updated on 18 December, 2008
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@Antigua and Barbuda
Introduction Antigua and Barbuda
Background:
The Siboney were the first to inhabit the islands of Antigua and Barbuda in 2400 B.C., but Arawak Indians populated the islands when COLUMBUS landed on his second voyage in 1493. Early settlements by the Spanish and French were succeeded by the English who formed a colony in 1667. Slavery, established to run the sugar plantations on Antigua, was abolished in 1834. The islands became an independent state within the British Commonwealth of Nations in 1981.
Geography Antigua and Barbuda
Location:
Caribbean, islands between the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, east-southeast of Puerto Rico
Geographic coordinates:
17 03 N, 61 48 W
Map references:
Central America and the Caribbean
Area:
total: 442.6 sq km (Antigua 280 sq km; Barbuda 161 sq km) land: 442.6 sq km water: 0 sq km note: includes Redonda, 1.6 sq km
Area - comparative:
2.5 times the size of Washington, DC
Land boundaries:
0 km
Coastline:
153 km
Maritime claims:
territorial sea: 12 nm contiguous zone: 24 nm exclusive economic zone: 200 nm continental shelf: 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin
Climate:
tropical maritime; little seasonal temperature variation
Terrain:
mostly low-lying limestone and coral islands, with some higher volcanic areas
Elevation extremes:
lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m highest point: Boggy Peak 402 m
Natural resources:
NEGL; pleasant climate fosters tourism
Land use:
arable land: 18.18% permanent crops: 4.55% other: 77.27% (2005)
Irrigated land:
NA
Total renewable water resources:
0.1 cu km (2000)
Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural):
total: 0.005 cu km/yr (60%/20%/20%) per capita: 63 cu m/yr (1990)
Natural hazards:
hurricanes and tropical storms (July to October); periodic droughts
Environment - current issues:
water management - a major concern because of limited natural fresh water resources - is further hampered by the clearing of trees to increase crop production, causing rainfall to run off quickly
Environment - international agreements:
party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands, Whaling signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
Geography - note:
Antigua has a deeply indented shoreline with many natural harbors and beaches; Barbuda has a large western harbor
People Antigua and Barbuda
Population:
84,522 (July 2008 est.)
Age structure:
0-14 years: 27.2% (male 11,670/female 11,318) 15-64 years: 66.3% (male 26,138/female 29,859) 65 years and over: 6.6% (male 2,408/female 3,129) (2008 est.)
Median age:
total: 29.5 years male: 28 years female: 30.8 years (2008 est.)
Population growth rate:
1.305% (2008 est.)
Birth rate:
16.78 births/1,000 population (2008 est.)
Death rate:
6.14 deaths/1,000 population (2008 est.)
Net migration rate:
2.41 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2008 est.)
Sex ratio:
at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.03 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.88 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.77 male(s)/female total population: 0.91 male(s)/female (2008 est.)
Infant mortality rate:
total: 17.49 deaths/1,000 live births male: 20.21 deaths/1,000 live births female: 14.62 deaths/1,000 live births (2008 est.)
Life expectancy at birth:
total population: 74.25 years male: 72.33 years female: 76.26 years (2008 est.)
Total fertility rate:
2.08 children born/woman (2008 est.)
HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate:
NA
HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS:
NA
HIV/AIDS - deaths:
NA
Nationality:
noun: Antiguan(s), Barbudan(s) adjective: Antiguan, Barbudan
Ethnic groups:
black 91%, mixed 4.4%, white 1.7%, other 2.9% (2001 census)
Religions:
Anglican 25.7%, Seventh Day Adventist 12.3%, Pentecostal 10.6%, Moravian 10.5%, Roman Catholic 10.4%, Methodist 7.9%, Baptist 4.9%, Church of God 4.5%, other Christian 5.4%, other 2%, none or unspecified 5.8% (2001 census)
Languages:
English (official), local dialects
Literacy:
definition: age 15 and over has completed five or more years of schooling total population: 85.8% male: NA% female: NA% (2003 est.)
Education expenditures:
3.9% of GDP (2002)
Government Antigua and Barbuda
Country name:
conventional long form: none conventional short form: Antigua and Barbuda
Government type:
constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system of government
Capital:
name: Saint John's geographic coordinates: 17 07 N, 61 51 W time difference: UTC-4 (1 hour ahead of Washington, DC during Standard Time)
Administrative divisions:
6 parishes and 2 dependencies*; Barbuda*, Redonda*, Saint George, Saint John, Saint Mary, Saint Paul, Saint Peter, Saint Philip
Independence:
1 November 1981 (from UK)
National holiday:
Independence Day (National Day), 1 November (1981)
Constitution:
1 November 1981
Legal system:
based on English common law
Suffrage:
18 years of age; universal
Executive branch:
chief of state: Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952); represented by Governor General Louisse LAKE-TACK (since 17 July 2007) head of government: Prime Minister Winston Baldwin SPENCER (since 24 March 2004) cabinet: Council of Ministers appointed by the governor general on the advice of the prime minister elections: the monarch is hereditary; governor general chosen by the monarch on the advice of the prime minister; following legislative elections, the leader of the majority party or the leader of the majority coalition is usually appointed prime minister by the governor general
Legislative branch:
bicameral Parliament consists of the Senate (17 seats; members appointed by the governor general) and the House of Representatives (17 seats; members are elected by proportional representation to serve five-year terms) elections: House of Representatives - last held 23 March 2004 (next to be held in 2009) election results: percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - ALP 4, UPP 13
Judicial branch:
Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court (based in Saint Lucia; one judge of the Supreme Court is a resident of the islands and presides over the Court of Summary Jurisdiction); member Caribbean Court of Justice
Political parties and leaders:
Antigua Labor Party or ALP [Lester Bryant BIRD]; Barbudans for a Better Barbuda [Ordrick SAMUEL]; Barbuda People's Movement or BPM [Thomas H. FRANK]; Barbuda People's Movement for Change [Arthur NIBBS]; United Progressive Party or UPP [Baldwin SPENCER] (a coalition of three parties - Antigua Caribbean Liberation Movement or ACLM, Progressive Labor Movement or PLM, United National Democratic Party or UNDP)
Political pressure groups and leaders:
Antigua Trades and Labor Union or ATLU [William ROBINSON]; People's Democratic Movement or PDM [Hugh MARSHALL]
International organization participation:
ACP, C, Caricom, CDB, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICCt, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, ISO (subscriber), ITU, ITUC, MIGA, NAM, OAS, OECS, OPANAL, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO
Diplomatic representation in the US:
chief of mission: Ambassador Deborah Mae LOVELL chancery: 3216 New Mexico Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20016 telephone: [1] (202) 362-5122 FAX: [1] (202) 362-5225 consulate(s) general: Miami
Diplomatic representation from the US:
the US does not have an embassy in Antigua and Barbuda; the US Ambassador to Barbados is accredited to Antigua and Barbuda
Flag description:
red, with an inverted isosceles triangle based on the top edge of the flag; the triangle contains three horizontal bands of black (top), light blue, and white, with a yellow rising sun in the black band
Economy Antigua and Barbuda
Economy - overview:
Antigua has a relatively high GDP per capita in comparison to most other Caribbean nations. It has experienced solid growth since 2003, driven by a construction boom in hotels and housing that which should wind down in 2008. Tourism continues to dominate the economy, accounting for more than half of GDP. The dual-island nation's agricultural production is focused on the domestic market and constrained by a limited water supply and a labor shortage stemming from the lure of higher wages in tourism and construction. Manufacturing comprises enclave-type assembly for export with major products being bedding, handicrafts, and electronic components. Prospects for economic growth in the medium term will continue to depend on income growth in the industrialized world, especially in the US, which accounts for slightly more than one-third of tourist arrivals. Since taking office in 2004, the SPENCER government has adopted an ambitious fiscal reform program, but will continue to be saddled by its debt burden with a debt-to-GDP ratio exceeding 100%.
GDP (purchasing power parity):
$1.526 billion (2007 est.)
GDP (official exchange rate):
$1.089 billion (2007 est.)
GDP - real growth rate:
6.1% (2007 est.)
GDP - per capita (PPP):
$18,300 (2007 est.)
GDP - composition by sector:
agriculture: 3.8% industry: 22% services: 74.3% (2002 est.)
Labor force:
30,000 (1991)
Labor force - by occupation:
agriculture: 7% industry: 11% services: 82% (1983)
Unemployment rate:
11% (2001 est.)
Population below poverty line:
NA%
Household income or consumption by percentage share:
lowest 10%: NA% highest 10%: NA%
Budget:
revenues: $123.7 million expenditures: $145.9 million (2000 est.)
Fiscal year:
1 April - 31 March
Inflation rate (consumer prices):
1.5% (2007 est.)
Central bank discount rate:
6.5% (31 December 2007)
Commercial bank prime lending rate:
10.44% (31 December 2007)
Stock of money:
$294.8 million (31 December 2007)
Stock of quasi money:
$902 million (31 December 2007)
Stock of domestic credit:
$1.002 billion (31 December 2007)
Agriculture - products:
cotton, fruits, vegetables, bananas, coconuts, cucumbers, mangoes, sugarcane; livestock
Industries:
tourism, construction, light manufacturing (clothing, alcohol, household appliances)
Industrial production growth rate:
NA%
Electricity - production:
105 million kWh (2006 est.)
Electricity - consumption:
97.65 million kWh (2006 est.)
Electricity - exports:
0 kWh (2007 est.)
Electricity - imports:
0 kWh (2007 est.)
Electricity - production by source:
fossil fuel: 100% hydro: 0% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (2001)
Oil - production:
0 bbl/day (2007 est.)
Oil - consumption:
4,109 bbl/day (2006 est.)
Oil - exports:
157.7 bbl/day (2005)
Oil - imports:
4,556 bbl/day (2005)
Oil - proved reserves:
0 bbl (1 January 2006 est.)
Natural gas - production:
0 cu m (2007 est.)
Natural gas - consumption:
0 cu m (2007 est.)
Natural gas - exports:
0 cu m (2007 est.)
Natural gas - imports:
0 cu m (2007 est.)
Natural gas - proved reserves:
0 cu m (1 January 2006 est.)
Current account balance:
$-211 million (2007 est.)
Exports:
$84.3 million (2007 est.)
Exports - commodities:
petroleum products, bedding, handicrafts, electronic components, transport equipment, food and live animals
Exports - partners:
Spain 34%, Germany 20.7%, Italy 7.7%, Singapore 5.8%, UK 4.9% (2006)
Imports:
$522.8 million (2007 est.)
Imports - commodities:
food and live animals, machinery and transport equipment, manufactures, chemicals, oil
Imports - partners:
US 21.1%, China 16.4%, Germany 13.3%, Singapore 12.7%, Spain 6.5% (2006)
Economic aid - recipient:
$7.23 million (2005)
Debt - external:
$359.8 million (June 2006)
Currency (code):
East Caribbean dollar (XCD)
Currency code:
XCD
Exchange rates:
East Caribbean dollars (XCD) per US dollar - 2.7 (2007), 2.7 (2006), 2.7 (2005), 2.7 (2004), 2.7 (2003) note: fixed rate since 1976
Communications Antigua and Barbuda
Telephones - main lines in use:
37,500 (2006)
Telephones - mobile cellular:
110,200 (2006)
Telephone system:
general assessment: NA domestic: good automatic telephone system international: country code - 1-268; landing point for the East Caribbean Fiber System (ECFS) submarine cable with links to 13 other islands in the eastern Caribbean extending from the British Virgin Islands to Trinidad; satellite earth stations - 2; tropospheric scatter to Saba (Netherlands Antilles) and Guadeloupe (2007)
Radio broadcast stations:
AM 4, FM 2, shortwave 0 (1998)
Radios:
36,000 (1997)
Television broadcast stations:
2 (1997)
Televisions:
31,000 (1997)
Internet country code:
.ag
Internet hosts:
2,215 (2008)
Internet Service Providers (ISPs):
16 (2000)
Internet users:
60,000 (2007)
Transportation Antigua and Barbuda
Airports:
3 (2007)
Airports - with paved runways:
total: 2 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1 under 914 m: 1 (2007)
Airports - with unpaved runways:
total: 1 under 914 m: 1 (2007)
Roadways:
total: 1,165 km paved: 384 km unpaved: 781 km (2002)
Merchant marine:
total: 1,146 by type: barge carrier 2, bulk carrier 50, cargo 651, carrier 4, chemical tanker 5, container 392, liquefied gas 12, petroleum tanker 1, refrigerated cargo 9, roll on/roll off 20 foreign-owned: 1,113 (Australia 1, Colombia 2, Cyprus 18, Denmark 19, Estonia 23, France 1, Germany 941, Greece 3, Iceland 12, Italy 1, Latvia 13, Lithuania 5, Netherlands 20, NZ 2, Norway 8, Poland 2, Russia 4, Slovenia 6, Sweden 1, Switzerland 8, Turkey 6, UK 9, US 8) (2008)
Ports and terminals:
Saint John's
Military Antigua and Barbuda
Military branches:
Royal Antigua and Barbuda Defense Force (2007)
Military service age and obligation:
18 years of age for voluntary military service; no conscription (2008)
Manpower available for military service:
males age 16-49: 19,560 females age 16-49: 18,977 (2008 est.)
Manpower fit for military service:
males age 16-49: 15,591 females age 16-49: 15,542 (2008 est.)
Manpower reaching militarily significant age annually:
male: 744 female: 742 (2008 est.)
Military expenditures:
NA
Transnational Issues Antigua and Barbuda
Disputes - international:
none
Illicit drugs:
considered a minor transshipment point for narcotics bound for the US and Europe; more significant as an offshore financial center
This page was last updated on 18 December, 2008
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@Arctic Ocean
Introduction Arctic Ocean
Background:
The Arctic Ocean is the smallest of the world's five oceans (after the Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, and the recently delimited Southern Ocean). The Northwest Passage (US and Canada) and Northern Sea Route (Norway and Russia) are two important seasonal waterways. A sparse network of air, ocean, river, and land routes circumscribes the Arctic Ocean.
Geography Arctic Ocean
Location:
body of water between Europe, Asia, and North America, mostly north of the Arctic Circle
Geographic coordinates:
90 00 N, 0 00 E
Map references:
Arctic Region
Area:
total: 14.056 million sq km note: includes Baffin Bay, Barents Sea, Beaufort Sea, Chukchi Sea, East Siberian Sea, Greenland Sea, Hudson Bay, Hudson Strait, Kara Sea, Laptev Sea, Northwest Passage, and other tributary water bodies
Area - comparative:
slightly less than 1.5 times the size of the US
Coastline:
45,389 km
Climate:
polar climate characterized by persistent cold and relatively narrow annual temperature ranges; winters characterized by continuous darkness, cold and stable weather conditions, and clear skies; summers characterized by continuous daylight, damp and foggy weather, and weak cyclones with rain or snow
Terrain:
central surface covered by a perennial drifting polar icepack that, on average, is about 3 meters thick, although pressure ridges may be three times that thickness; clockwise drift pattern in the Beaufort Gyral Stream, but nearly straight-line movement from the New Siberian Islands (Russia) to Denmark Strait (between Greenland and Iceland); the icepack is surrounded by open seas during the summer, but more than doubles in size during the winter and extends to the encircling landmasses; the ocean floor is about 50% continental shelf (highest percentage of any ocean) with the remainder a central basin interrupted by three submarine ridges (Alpha Cordillera, Nansen Cordillera, and Lomonosov Ridge)
Elevation extremes:
lowest point: Fram Basin -4,665 m highest point: sea level 0 m
Natural resources:
sand and gravel aggregates, placer deposits, polymetallic nodules, oil and gas fields, fish, marine mammals (seals and whales)
Natural hazards:
ice islands occasionally break away from northern Ellesmere Island; icebergs calved from glaciers in western Greenland and extreme northeastern Canada; permafrost in islands; virtually ice locked from October to June; ships subject to superstructure icing from October to May
Environment - current issues:
endangered marine species include walruses and whales; fragile ecosystem slow to change and slow to recover from disruptions or damage; thinning polar icepack
Geography - note: