Chapter 97
Administrative divisions: none (overseas department of France); there are no first-order administrative divisions as defined by the US Government, but there are four arrondissements, 24 communes, and 47 cantons
Independence: none (overseas department of France)
National holiday: National Day, Taking of the Bastille, 14 July (1789)
Constitution: 28 September 1958 (French Constitution)
Legal system: French law
Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
Executive branch: chief of state: President Jacques CHIRAC of France (since 17 May 1995), represented by Prefect Robert POMMIES (since NA 1996) head of government: President of the General Council Christophe PAYET (since 4 April 1994) and President of the Regional Council Margarite SUDRE (since 25 June 1993) cabinet: NA elections: French president elected by popular vote for a seven-year term; prefect appointed by the French president on the advice of the French Ministry of the Interior; the presidents of the General and Regional Councils are elected by the members of those councils
Legislative branch: unicameral General Council (47 seats; members are elected by direct popular vote to serve six-year terms) and unicameral Regional Council (45 seats; members are elected by direct popular vote to serve six-year terms) elections: General Council--last held NA March 1994 (next to be held NA 2000); Regional Council--last held 25 June 1993 (next to be held NA 1999) election results: General Council--percent of vote by party--NA; seats by party--PCR 12, PS 12, UDF 11, RPR 5, others 7; Regional Council--percent of vote by party--NA; seats by party--UPF 17, Free-Dom Movement 13, PCR 9, PS 6 note: Reunion elects three representatives to the French Senate; elections last held 14 April 1996 (next to be held NA); results--percent of vote by party--NA; seats by party--RPR 1, PCR 2; Reunion also elects five deputies to the French National Assembly; elections last held 25 May and 1 June 1997 (next to be held NA2002); results--percent of vote by party--NA; seats by party--PCR 3, PS 1, and RPR-UDF 1
Judicial branch: Court of Appeals or Cour d'Appel
Political parties and leaders: Rally for the Republic or RPR
International organization participation: FZ, InOC, WFTU
Diplomatic representation in the US: none (overseas department of France)
Diplomatic representation from the US: none (overseas department of France)
Flag description: the flag of France is used
Economy
Economy--overview: The economy has traditionally been based on agriculture. Sugarcane has been the primary crop for more than a century, and in some years it accounts for 85% of exports. The government has been pushing the development of a tourist industry to relieve high unemployment, which recently amounted to one-third of the labor force. The gap in Reunion between the well-off and the poor is extraordinary and accounts for the persistent social tensions. The white and Indian communities are substantially better off than other segments of the population, often approaching European standards, whereas indigenous groups suffer the poverty and unemployment typical of the poorer nations of the African continent. The outbreak of severe rioting in February 1991 illustrates the seriousness of socioeconomic tensions. The economic well-being of Reunion depends heavily on continued financial assistance from France.
GDP: purchasing power parity--$3.4 billion (1998 est.)
GDP--real growth rate: 3.8% (1998 est.)
GDP--per capita: purchasing power parity?$4,800 (1998 est.)
GDP--composition by sector: agriculture: NA% industry: NA% services: NA%
Population below poverty line: NA%
Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: NA% highest 10%: NA%
Inflation rate (consumer prices): NA%
Labor force: 261,000 (1995)
Labor force--by occupation: agriculture 8%, industry 19%, services 73% (1990)
Unemployment rate: 35% (1994)
Budget: revenues: $856.7 million expenditures: $2.2437 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1993)
Industries: sugar, rum, cigarettes, handicraft items, flower oil extraction
Industrial production growth rate: NA%
Electricity--production: 1.1 billion kWh (1996)
Electricity--production by source: fossil fuel: 54.55% hydro: 45.45% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1996)
Electricity--consumption: 1.1 billion kWh (1996)
Electricity--exports: 0 kWh (1996)
Electricity--imports: 0 kWh (1996)
Agriculture--products: sugarcane, vanilla, tobacco, tropical fruits, vegetables, corn
Exports: $171.78 million (f.o.b., 1994)
Exports--commodities: sugar 63%, rum and molasses 4%, perfume essences 2%, lobster 3%, (1993)
Exports--partners: France 74%, Japan 6%, Comoros 4% (1994)
Imports: $2.35 billion (c.i.f., 1994)
Imports--commodities: manufactured goods, food, beverages, tobacco, machinery and transportation equipment, raw materials, and petroleum products
Imports--partners: France 67%, Bahrain 4%, Italy 3% (1994)
Debt--external: $NA
Economic aid--recipient: $NA; note?substantial annual subsidies from France
Currency: 1 French franc (F) = 100 centimes
Exchange rates: French francs (F) per US$1--5.65 (January 1999), 5.8995 (1998), 5.8367 (1997), 5.1155 (1996), 4.9915 (1995), 5.5520 (1994)
Fiscal year: calendar year
Communications
Telephones: 219,000 (1995)
Telephone system: adequate system; principal center is Saint-Denis domestic: modern open wire and microwave radio relay network international: radiotelephone communication to Comoros, France, Madagascar; new microwave route to Mauritius; satellite earth station--1 Intelsat (Indian Ocean)
Radio broadcast stations: AM 3, FM 13, shortwave 0
Radios: 158,000 (1994)
Television broadcast stations: 22 (in addition, there are 18 low-power repeaters) (1997)
Televisions: 116,181 (1992 est.)
Transportation
Railways: 0 km
Highways: total: 2,784 km paved: 2,187 km unpaved: 597 km (1987 est.)
Ports and harbors: Le Port, Pointe des Galets
Merchant marine: total: 1 chemical tanker (l,000 GRT or over) totaling 28,264 GRT/44,885 DWT (1998 est.)
Airports: 2 (1998 est.)
Airports--with paved runways: total: 2 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1 914 to 1,523 m: 1 (1998 est.)
Military
Military branches: French forces (Army, Navy, Air Force, and Gendarmerie)
Military manpower--military age: 18 years of age
Military manpower--availability: males age 15-49: 185,800 (1999 est.)
Military manpower--fit for military service: males age 15-49: 95,068 (1999 est.)
Military manpower--reaching military age annually: males: 5,902 (1999 est.)
Military--note: defense is the responsibility of France
Transnational Issues
Disputes--international: none
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@Romania -------
Geography
Location: Southeastern Europe, bordering the Black Sea, between Bulgaria and Ukraine
Geographic coordinates: 46 00 N, 25 00 E
Map references: Europe
Area: total: 237,500 sq km land: 230,340 sq km water: 7,160 sq km
Area--comparative: slightly smaller than Oregon
Land boundaries: total: 2,508 km border countries: Bulgaria 608 km, Hungary 443 km, Moldova 450 km, Serbia and Montenegro 476 km (all with Serbia), Ukraine (north) 362 km, Ukraine (east) 169 km
Coastline: 225 km
Maritime claims: contiguous zone: 24 nm continental shelf: 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation exclusive economic zone: 200 nm territorial sea: 12 nm
Climate: temperate; cold, cloudy winters with frequent snow and fog; sunny summers with frequent showers and thunderstorms
Terrain: central Transylvanian Basin is separated from the Plain of Moldavia on the east by the Carpathian Mountains and separated from the Walachian Plain on the south by the Transylvanian Alps
Elevation extremes: lowest point: Black Sea 0 m highest point: Moldoveanu 2,544 m
Natural resources: petroleum (reserves declining), timber, natural gas, coal, iron ore, salt
Land use: arable land: 41% permanent crops: 3% permanent pastures: 21% forests and woodland: 29% other: 6% (1993 est.)
Irrigated land: 31,020 sq km (1993 est.)
Natural hazards: earthquakes most severe in south and southwest; geologic structure and climate promote landslides
Environment--current issues: soil erosion and degradation; water pollution; air pollution in south from industrial effluents; contamination of Danube delta wetlands
Environment--international agreements: party to: Air Pollution, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol
Geography--note: controls most easily traversable land route between the Balkans, Moldova, and Ukraine
People
Population: 22,334,312 (July 1999 est.)
Age structure: 0-14 years: 19% (male 2,117,289; female 2,027,940) 15-64 years: 68% (male 7,563,695; female 7,663,491) 65 years and over: 13% (male 1,234,760; female 1,727,137) (1999 est.)
Population growth rate: -0.23% (1999 est.)
Birth rate: 10.09 births/1,000 population (1999 est.)
Death rate: 11.55 deaths/1,000 population (1999 est.)
Net migration rate: -0.87 migrant(s)/1,000 population (1999 est.)
Sex ratio: at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.99 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.71 male(s)/female total population: 0.96 male(s)/female (1999 est.)
Infant mortality rate: 18.12 deaths/1,000 live births (1999 est.)
Life expectancy at birth: total population: 70.83 years male: 67.05 years female: 74.81 years (1999 est.)
Total fertility rate: 1.27 children born/woman (1999 est.)
Nationality: noun: Romanian(s) adjective: Romanian
Ethnic groups: Romanian 89.1%, Hungarian 8.9%, German 0.4%, Ukrainian, Serb, Croat, Russian, Turk, and Gypsy 1.6%
Religions: Romanian Orthodox 70%, Roman Catholic 6% (of which 3% are Uniate), Protestant 6%, unaffiliated 18%
Languages: Romanian, Hungarian, German
Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 97% male: 98% female: 95% (1992 est.)
Government
Country name: conventional long form: none conventional short form: Romania local long form: none local short form: Romania
Data code: RO
Government type: republic
Capital: Bucharest
Administrative divisions: 40 counties (judete, singular--judet) and 1 municipality* (municipiu); Alba, Arad, Arges, Bacau, Bihor, Bistrita-Nasaud, Botosani, Braila, Brasov, Bucuresti*, Buzau, Calarasi, Caras-Severin, Cluj, Constanta, Covasna, Dimbovita, Dolj, Galati, Gorj, Giurgiu, Harghita, Hunedoara, Ialomita, Iasi, Maramures, Mehedinti, Mures, Neamt, Olt, Prahova, Salaj, Satu Mare, Sibiu, Suceava, Teleorman, Timis, Tulcea, Vaslui, Vilcea, Vrancea
Independence: 1881 (from Turkey; republic proclaimed 30 December 1947)
National holiday: National Day of Romania, 1 December (1990)
Constitution: 8 December 1991
Legal system: former mixture of civil law system and communist legal theory; is now based on the constitution of France's Fifth Republic
Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
Executive branch: chief of state: President Emil CONSTANTINESCU (since 29 November 1996) head of government: Prime Minister Radu VASILE (since 17 April 1998) cabinet: Council of Ministers appointed by the prime minister elections: president elected by popular vote for a four-year term; election last held 3 November 1996, with runoff between the top two candidates held 17 November 1996 (next to be held NA November/December 2000); prime minister appointed by the president election results: percent of vote--Emil CONSTANTINESCU 54.4%, Ion ILIESCU 45.6%
Legislative branch: bicameral Parliament or Parlament consists of the Senate or Senat (143 seats; members are elected by direct popular vote on a proportional representation basis to serve four-year terms) and the Chamber of Deputies or Adunarea Deputatilor (343 seats; members are elected by direct popular vote on a proportional representation basis to serve four-year terms) elections: Senate--last held 3 November 1996 (next to be held NA 2000); Chamber of Deputies--last held 3 November 1996 (next to be held NA 2000) election results: Senate--percent of vote by party--CDR 30.7%, PDSR 23.1%, USD 13.2%, UDMR 6.8%, PRM 4.5%, PUNR 4.2%, others 17.5%; seats by party--CDR 53, PDSR 41, USD 23, UDMR 11, PRM 8, PUNR 7; Chamber of Deputies--percent of vote by party--CDR 30.2%, PDSR 21.5%, USD 12.9%, UDMR 6.6% PRM 4.5%, PUNR 4.4%, others 19.9%; seats by party--CDR 122, PDSR 91, USD 53, UDMR 25, PRM 19, PUNR 18, ethnic minorities 15
Judicial branch: Supreme Court of Justice, judges are appointed by the president on the recommendation of the Superior Council of Magistrates
Political parties and leaders: Democratic Party or PD [Petre DIACONESCU]; Romania Mare Party (Greater Romanian Party) or PRM note: to increase their voting strength several of the above-mentioned parties united under umbrella organizations: PNTCD, PNL, and PNL-CD form the bulk of the Democratic Convention or CDR other small parties failed to gain representation in the most recent election
Political pressure groups and leaders: various human rights and professional associations
International organization participation: ACCT, BIS, BSEC, CCC, CE, CEI, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, EU (applicant), FAO, G- 9, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO, ITU, LAIA (observer), MONUA, NAM (guest), NSG, OAS (observer), OPCW, OSCE, PCA, PFP, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNIKOM, UPU, WCL, WEU (associate partner), WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO, ZC
Diplomatic representation in the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Mircea Dan GEOANA chancery: 1607 23rd Street NW, Washington, DC 20008 consulate(s) general: Los Angeles and New York
Diplomatic representation from the US: chief of mission: Ambassador James C. ROSAPEPE embassy: Strada Tudor Arghezi 7-9, Bucharest mailing address: American Embassy Bucharest, Department of State, Washington, DC 20521-5260 (pouch) branch office: Cluj-Napoca
Flag description: three equal vertical bands of blue (hoist side), yellow, and red; the national coat of arms that used to be centered in the yellow band has been removed; now similar to the flags of Andorra and Chad
Economy
Economy--overview: After the collapse of the Soviet Bloc in 1989-91, Romania was left with an obsolete industrial base and a pattern of industrial capacity wholly unsuited to its needs. In February 1997, Romania embarked on a comprehensive macroeconomic stabilization and structural reform program, but reform subsequently has been a stop-and-go process. Restructuring programs include liquidating large energy-intensive industries and major agricultural and financial sector reforms. Today, Romania is continuing its difficult transition to a market-based economy. GDP contracted by an estimated 7.3% in 1998 after a 6.6% decline in 1997. Tight monetary policy and slower exchange rate depreciation earlier in 1998 helped lower inflation to an estimated 41% from 152% in 1997. The large current account deficit and concerns about meeting debt payments in 1999 contributed to increased pressure on the exchange rate towards the end of 1998. Replacing the IMF standby agreement (suspended because of lack of progress on structural reforms), servicing large debt payments, and bringing the budget under control are key priorities for 1999.
GDP: purchasing power parity--$90.6 billion (1998 est.)
GDP--real growth rate: -7.3% (1998 est.)
GDP--per capita: purchasing power parity?$4,050 (1998 est.)
GDP--composition by sector: agriculture: 19% industry: 41% services: 40% (1997)
Population below poverty line: 21.5% (1994 est.)
Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: 3.8% highest 10%: 20.2% (1992)
Inflation rate (consumer prices): 41% (1998 est.)
Labor force: 10.1 million (1996 est.)
Labor force--by occupation: NA%
Unemployment rate: 9% (1998 est.)
Budget: revenues: $10 billion expenditures: $11.7 billion, including capital expenditures of $1.3 billion (1997 est.)
Industries: mining, timber, construction materials, metallurgy, chemicals, machine building, food processing, petroleum production and refining
Industrial production growth rate: -17% (1998 est.)
Electricity--production: 59.245 billion kWh (1996)
Electricity--production by source: fossil fuel: 72.11% hydro: 26.35% nuclear: 1.54% other: 0% (1996)
Electricity--consumption: 60.045 billion kWh (1996)
Electricity--exports: 0 kWh (1996)
Electricity--imports: 800 million kWh (1996)
Agriculture--products: wheat, corn, sugar beets, sunflower seed, potatoes, grapes; milk, eggs, beef
Exports: $8.2 billion (f.o.b., 1998 est.)
Exports--commodities: textiles and footwear 23%, metals and metal products 18%, machinery and equipment 9%, chemicals 7% (1997)
Exports--partners: Italy 20%, Germany 17%, France 6%, Turkey 4% (1997)
Imports: $10.8 billion (f.o.b., 1998 est.)
Imports--commodities: machinery and equipment 23%, fuels and minerals 19%, chemicals 8%, foodstuffs (1997)
Imports--partners: Germany 16%, Italy 16%, Russia 12%, France 6% (1997)
Debt--external: $10 billion (1998 est.)
Economic aid--recipient: $510.1 million (1995)
Currency: 1 leu (L) = 100 bani
Exchange rates: lei (L) per US$1--11,353.6 (January 1999), 8,875.6 (1998), 7,167.9 (1997), 3,084.2 (1996), 2,033.3 (1995), 1,655.1 (1994)
Fiscal year: calendar year
Communications
Telephones: 2.6 million (1993 est.)
Telephone system: domestic: poor service; 89% of telephone network is automatic; trunk network is microwave radio relay; roughly 3,300 villages with no service (February 1990 est.) international: satellite earth station--1 Intelsat; new digital international direct-dial exchanges are in Bucharest (1993 est.)
Radio broadcast stations: AM 12, FM 5, shortwave 0 note: in 1995, 135 local radio stations were registered
Radios: 4.64 million (1992 est.)
Television broadcast stations: 130 (in addition, there are about 400 low-power repeaters) (1997)
Televisions: 4.58 million (1992 est.)
Transportation
Railways: total: 11,376 km broad gauge: 60 km 1.524-m gauge standard gauge: 10,889 km 1.435-m gauge (3,723 km electrified; 3,060 km double track) narrow gauge: 427 km 0.760-m gauge (1994)
Highways: total: 153,358 km paved: 78,213 km (including 113 km of expressways) unpaved: 75,145 km (1996 est.)
Waterways: 1,724 km (1984)
Pipelines: crude oil 2,800 km; petroleum products 1,429 km; natural gas 6,400 km (1992)
Ports and harbors: Braila, Constanta, Galati, Mangalia, Sulina, Tulcea
Merchant marine: total: 199 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 1,996,157 GRT/2,917,895 DWT ships by type: bulk 35, cargo 141, container 2, oil tanker 7, passenger 1, passenger-cargo 1, railcar carrier 2, roll-on/roll-off cargo 9, specialized tanker 1 (1998 est.)
Airports: 27 (1998 est.)
Airports--with paved runways: total: 21 over 3,047 m: 4 2,438 to 3,047 m: 6 1,524 to 2,437 m: 11 (1998 est.)
Airports--with unpaved runways: total: 6 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 914 to 1,523 m: 3 under 914 m: 2 (1998 est.)
Heliports: 2 (1998 est.)
Military
Military branches: Army, Navy, Air and Air Defense Forces, Paramilitary Forces, Civil Defense
Military manpower--military age: 20 years of age
Military manpower--availability: males age 15-49: 5,876,912 (1999 est.)
Military manpower--fit for military service: males age 15-49: 4,938,953 (1999 est.)
Military manpower--reaching military age annually: males: 193,264 (1999 est.)
Military expenditures--dollar figure: $650 million (1996)
Military expenditures--percent of GDP: 2.5% (1996)
Transnational Issues
Disputes--international: dispute with Ukraine over continental shelf of the Black Sea under which significant gas and oil deposits may exist; agreed in 1997 to two-year negotiating period, after which either party can refer dispute to the International Court of Justice
Illicit drugs: important transshipment point for Southwest Asian heroin transiting the Balkan route and small amounts of Latin American cocaine bound for Western Europe
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@Russia ------
Introduction
Background: Russia, a vast Eurasian expanse of field, forest, desert, and tundra, has endured many "times of trouble"--the Mongol rule of the 13th to 15th century; czarist reigns of terror; massive invasions by Swedes, French, and Germans; and the deadly communist period (1917-91) in which Russia dominated an immense Soviet Union. General Secretary Mikhail GORBACHEV, in charge during 1985-91, introduced glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring) in an attempt to modernize communism, but also inadvertently released forces that shattered the USSR into 15 independent republics in December 1991. Russia has struggled in its efforts to build a democratic political system and market economy to replace the strict social, political, and economic controls of the communist period. These reform efforts have resulted in contradictory and confusing economic and political regulations and practices. Industry, agriculture, the military, the central government, and the ruble have suffered, but Russia has successfully held one presidential, two legislative, and numerous regional elections since 1991. The severe illnesses of President Boris YEL'TSIN have contributed to a lack of policy focus at the center.
Geography
Location: Northern Asia (that part west of the Urals is sometimes included with Europe), bordering the Arctic Ocean, between Europe and the North Pacific Ocean
Geographic coordinates: 60 00 N, 100 00 E
Map references: Asia
Area: total: 17,075,200 sq km land: 16,995,800 sq km water: 79,400 sq km
Area--comparative: slightly less than 1.8 times the size of the US
Land boundaries: total: 19,917 km border countries: Azerbaijan 284 km, Belarus 959 km, China (southeast) 3,605 km, China (south) 40 km, Estonia 294 km, Finland 1,313 km, Georgia 723 km, Kazakhstan 6,846 km, North Korea 19 km, Latvia 217 km, Lithuania (Kaliningrad Oblast) 227 km, Mongolia 3,441 km, Norway 167 km, Poland (Kaliningrad Oblast) 206 km, Ukraine 1,576 km
Coastline: 37,653 km
Maritime claims: continental shelf: 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation exclusive economic zone: 200 nm territorial sea: 12 nm
Climate: ranges from steppes in the south through humid continental in much of European Russia; subarctic in Siberia to tundra climate in the polar north; winters vary from cool along Black Sea coast to frigid in Siberia; summers vary from warm in the steppes to cool along Arctic coast
Terrain: broad plain with low hills west of Urals; vast coniferous forest and tundra in Siberia; uplands and mountains along southern border regions
Elevation extremes: lowest point: Caspian Sea -28 m highest point: Mount El'brus 5,633 m
Natural resources: wide natural resource base including major deposits of oil, natural gas, coal, and many strategic minerals, timber note: formidable obstacles of climate, terrain, and distance hinder exploitation of natural resources
Land use: arable land: 8% permanent crops: 0% permanent pastures: 4% forests and woodland: 46% other: 42% (1993 est.)
Irrigated land: 40,000 sq km (1993 est.)