Chapter 69
Background: Lebanon has made progress toward rebuilding its political institutions and regaining its national sovereignty since the end of the devastating 16-year civil war, which ended in 1991. Under the Ta'if Accord--the blueprint for national reconciliation--the Lebanese have established a more equitable political system, particularly by giving Muslims a greater say in the political process while institutionalizing sectarian divisions in the government. Since the end of the civil war, the Lebanese have formed six cabinets, conducted two legislative elections, and held their first municipal elections in 35 years. Most of the militias have been weakened or disbanded. The Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF) has seized vast quantities of weapons used by the militias during the war and extended central government authority over about one-half of the country. Hizballah, the radical Shi'a party, retains its weapons. Foreign forces still occupy areas of Lebanon. Israel maintains troops in southern Lebanon and continues to support a proxy militia, the Army of South Lebanon (ASL), along a narrow stretch of territory contiguous to its border. The ASL's enclave encompasses this self-declared security zone and about 20 kilometers north to the strategic town of Jazzin. Syria maintains about 25,000 troops in Lebanon based mainly in Beirut, North Lebanon, and the Bekaa Valley. Syria's deployment was legitimized by the Arab League during Lebanon's civil war and in the Ta'if Accord. Citing the continued weakness of the LAF, Beirut's requests, and failure of the Lebanese Government to implement all of the constitutional reforms in the Ta'if Accord, Damascus has so far refused to withdraw its troops from Lebanon.
Geography
Location: Middle East, bordering the Mediterranean Sea, between Israel and Syria
Geographic coordinates: 33 50 N, 35 50 E
Map references: Middle East
Area: total: 10,400 sq km land: 10,230 sq km water: 170 sq km
Area--comparative: about 0.7 times the size of Connecticut
Land boundaries: total: 454 km border countries: Israel 79 km, Syria 375 km
Coastline: 225 km
Maritime claims: territorial sea: 12 nm
Climate: Mediterranean; mild to cool, wet winters with hot, dry summers; Lebanon mountains experience heavy winter snows
Terrain: narrow coastal plain; Al Biqa' (Bekaa Valley) separates Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon Mountains
Elevation extremes: lowest point: Mediterranean Sea 0 m highest point: Jabal al Makmal 3,087 m
Natural resources: limestone, iron ore, salt, water-surplus state in a water-deficit region
Land use: arable land: 21% permanent crops: 9% permanent pastures: 1% forests and woodland: 8% other: 61% (1993 est.)
Irrigated land: 860 sq km (1993 est.)
Natural hazards: dust storms, sandstorms
Environment--current issues: deforestation; soil erosion; desertification; air pollution in Beirut from vehicular traffic and the burning of industrial wastes; pollution of coastal waters from raw sewage and oil spills
Environment--international agreements: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution signed, but not ratified: Environmental Modification, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation
Geography--note: Nahr al Litani only major river in Near East not crossing an international boundary; rugged terrain historically helped isolate, protect, and develop numerous factional groups based on religion, clan, and ethnicity
People
Population: 3,562,699 (July 1999 est.)
Age structure: 0-14 years: 30% (male 535,596; female 515,776) 15-64 years: 64% (male 1,084,121; female 1,196,678) 65 years and over: 6% (male 105,133; female 125,395) (1999 est.)
Population growth rate: 1.61% (1999 est.)
Birth rate: 22.5 births/1,000 population (1999 est.)
Death rate: 6.45 deaths/1,000 population (1999 est.)
Net migration rate: 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (1999 est.)
Sex ratio: at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.91 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.84 male(s)/female total population: 0.94 male(s)/female (1999 est.)
Infant mortality rate: 30.53 deaths/1,000 live births (1999 est.)
Life expectancy at birth: total population: 70.93 years male: 68.34 years female: 73.66 years (1999 est.)
Total fertility rate: 2.25 children born/woman (1999 est.)
Nationality: noun: Lebanese (singular and plural) adjective: Lebanese
Ethnic groups: Arab 95%, Armenian 4%, other 1%
Religions: Islam 70% (5 legally recognized Islamic groups--Alawite or Nusayri, Druze, Isma'ilite, Shi'a, Sunni), Christian 30% (11 legally recognized Christian groups--4 Orthodox Christian, 6 Catholic, 1 Protestant), Judaism NEGL%
Languages: Arabic (official), French, English, Armenian widely understood
Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 86.4% male: 90.8% female: 82.2% (1997 est.)
Government
Country name: conventional long form: Lebanese Republic conventional short form: Lebanon local long form: Al Jumhuriyah al Lubnaniyah local short form: Lubnan
Data code: LE
Government type: republic
Capital: Beirut
Administrative divisions: 5 governorates (muhafazat, singular--muhafazah); Al Biqa', Al Janub, Ash Shamal, Bayrut, Jabal Lubnan
Independence: 22 November 1943 (from League of Nations mandate under French administration)
National holiday: Independence Day, 22 November (1943)
Constitution: 23 May 1926, amended a number of times
Legal system: mixture of Ottoman law, canon law, Napoleonic code, and civil law; no judicial review of legislative acts; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Suffrage: 21 years of age; compulsory for all males; authorized for women at age 21 with elementary education
Executive branch: chief of state: President Emile LAHUD (since 24 November 1998) head of government: Prime Minister Salim al-HUSS (since 4 December 1998) cabinet: Cabinet chosen by the prime minister in consultation with the president and members of the National Assembly; the current Cabinet was formed in 1998 elections: president elected by the National Assembly for a six-year term; election last held 15 October 1998 (next to be held NA 2004); prime minister and deputy prime minister appointed by the president in consultation with the National Assembly; by custom, the president is a Maronite Christian, the prime minister is a Sunni Muslim, and the speaker of the legislature is a Shi'a Muslim election results: Emile LAHUD elected president; National Assembly vote--118 votes in favor, 0 against, 10 abstentions
Legislative branch: unicameral National Assembly or Majlis Alnuwab (Arabic) or Assemblee Nationale (French) (128 seats; members elected by popular vote on the basis of sectarian proportional representation to serve four-year terms) elections: last held in the summer of 1996 (next to be held NA 2000) election results: percent of vote by party--NA; seats by party--NA (one-half Christian and one-half Muslim)
Judicial branch: four Courts of Cassation (three courts for civil and commercial cases and one court for criminal cases); Constitutional Council (called for in Ta'if Accord) rules on constitutionality of laws; Supreme Council (hears charges against the president and prime minister as needed)
Political parties and leaders: political party activity is organized along largely sectarian lines; numerous political groupings exist, consisting of individual political figures and followers motivated by religious, clan, and economic considerations
International organization participation: ABEDA, ACCT, AFESD, AL, AMF, CCC, ESCWA, FAO, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO (correspondent), ITU, NAM, OAS (observer), OIC, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNRWA, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO
Diplomatic representation in the US: chief of mission: Ambassador-designate Farid ABBOUD chancery: 2560 28th Street NW, Washington, DC 20008 consulate(s) general: Detroit, New York, and Los Angeles
Diplomatic representation from the US: chief of mission: Ambassador David SATTERFIELD embassy: Antelias, Beirut mailing address: P. O. Box 70-840, Beirut; PSC 815, Box 2, FPO AE 09836-0002
Flag description: three horizontal bands of red (top), white (double width), and red with a green and brown cedar tree centered in the white band
Economy
Economy--overview: The 1975-91 civil war seriously damaged Lebanon's economic infrastructure, cut national output by half, and all but ended Lebanon's position as a Middle Eastern entrepot and banking hub. Peace has enabled the central government to restore control in Beirut, begin collecting taxes, and regain access to key port and government facilities. Economic recovery has been helped by a financially sound banking system and resilient small- and medium-scale manufacturers, with family remittances, banking services, manufactured and farm exports, and international aid as the main sources of foreign exchange. Lebanon's economy has made impressive gains since the launch of "Horizon 2000," the government's $20 billion reconstruction program in 1993. Real GDP grew 8% in 1994 and 7% in 1995 before Israel's Operation Grapes of Wrath in April 1996 stunted economic activity. During 1992-98, annual inflation fell from more than 100% to 5%, and foreign exchange reserves jumped to more than $6 billion from $1.4 billion. Burgeoning capital inflows have generated foreign payments surpluses, and the Lebanese pound has remained relatively stable. Progress also has been made in rebuilding Lebanon's war-torn physical and financial infrastructure. Solidere, a $2-billion firm, is managing the reconstruction of Beirut's central business district; the stock market reopened in January 1996; and international banks and insurance companies are returning. The government nonetheless faces serious challenges in the economic arena. It has had to fund reconstruction by tapping foreign exchange reserves and boosting borrowing. Reducing the government budget deficit is a major goal of the LAHUD government. The stalled peace process and ongoing violence in southern Lebanon could lead to wider hostilities that would disrupt vital capital inflows. Furthermore, the gap between rich and poor has widened in the 1990's, resulting in grassroots dissatisfaction over the skewed distribution of the reconstruction's benefits and leading the government to shift its focus from rebuilding infrastructure to improving living conditions.
GDP: purchasing power parity--$15.8 billion (1998 est.)
GDP--real growth rate: 3% (1998 est.)
GDP--per capita: purchasing power parity?$4,500 (1998 est.)
GDP--composition by sector: agriculture: 4% industry: 23% services: 73% (1997 est.)
Population below poverty line: NA%
Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: NA% highest 10%: NA%
Inflation rate (consumer prices): 5% (1998 est.)
Labor force: 1 million note: in addition, there are as many as 1 million foreign workers (1996 est.)
Labor force--by occupation: services 62%, industry 31%, agriculture 7% (1997 est.)
Unemployment rate: 18% (1997 est.)
Budget: revenues: $4.9 billion expenditures: $7.9 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1998 est.)
Industries: banking; food processing; jewelry; cement; textiles; mineral and chemical products; wood and furniture products; oil refining; metal fabricating
Industrial production growth rate: 25% (1993 est.)
Electricity--production: 8.4 billion kWh (1997 est.)
Electricity--production by source: fossil fuel: 87.72% hydro: 12.28% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1996)
Electricity--consumption: 6.01 billion kWh (1996)
Electricity--exports: 0 kWh (1996)
Electricity--imports: 310 million kWh (1996)
Agriculture--products: citrus, grapes, tomatoes, apples, vegetables, potatoes, olives, tobacco, hemp (hashish); sheep, goats
Exports: $711 million (f.o.b., 1997)
Exports--commodities: foodstuffs and tobacco 20%, textiles 12%, chemicals 11%, metal and metal products 11%, electrical equipment and products 10%, jewelry 10%, paper and paper products 8% (1997)
Exports--partners: Saudi Arabia 14%, UAE 9%, France 7%, Syria 6%, US 6%, Kuwait 4%, Jordan 4%, Turkey 4%
Imports: $7.5 billion (c.i.f., 1997)
Imports--commodities: foodstuffs 29%, machinery and transport equipment 28%, consumer goods 18%, chemicals 9%, textiles 5%, metals 5%, fuels 3%, agricultural foods 3% (1997)
Imports--partners: Italy 13%, US 9%, France 9%, Germany 8%, Switzerland 7%, Japan 4%, UK 4%, Syria 4% (1997)
Debt--external: $3 billion (1998 est.)
Economic aid--recipient: $3.5 billion (pledges 1997-2001)
Currency: 1 Lebanese pound (LL) = 100 piasters
Exchange rates: Lebanese pounds (LL) per US$1--1,508.0 (January 1999), 1,516.1 (1998), 1,539.5 (1997), 1,571.4 (1996), 1,621.4 (1995), 1,680.1 (1994)
Fiscal year: calendar year
Communications
Telephones: 150,000 (1990 est.)
Telephone system: telecommunications system severely damaged by civil war; rebuilding well underway domestic: primarily microwave radio relay and cable international: satellite earth stations--2 Intelsat (1 Indian Ocean and 1 Atlantic Ocean) (erratic operations); coaxial cable to Syria; microwave radio relay to Syria but inoperable beyond Syria to Jordan; 3 submarine coaxial cables
Radio broadcast stations: AM 5, FM 3, shortwave 1 note: government is licensing a limited number of the more than 100 AM and FM stations operated sporadically by various factions that sprang up during the civil war
Radios: 2.37 million (1992 est.)
Television broadcast stations: 28 (1997)
Televisions: 1.1 million (1993 est.)
Transportation
Railways: total: 222 km standard gauge: 222 km 1.435-m (from Beirut to the Syrian border)
Highways: total: 6,270 km paved: 6,270 km unpaved: 0 km (1998 est.)
Pipelines: crude oil 72 km (none in operation)
Ports and harbors: Al Batrun, Al Mina', An Naqurah, Antilyas, Az Zahrani, Beirut, Jubayl, Juniyah, Shikka, Sidon, Tripoli, Tyre
Merchant marine: total: 64 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 267,562 GRT/403,252 DWT ships by type: bulk 6, cargo 41, chemical tanker 1, combination bulk 1, combination ore/oil 1, container 3, livestock carrier 6, roll-on/roll-off cargo 2, vehicle carrier 3 (1998 est.)
Airports: 9 (1998 est.)
Airports--with paved runways: total: 7 over 3,047 m: 1 2,438 to 3,047 m: 2 1,524 to 2,437 m: 2 914 to 1,523 m: 1 under 914 m: 1 (1998 est.)
Airports--with unpaved runways: total: 2 914 to 1,523 m: 1 under 914 m: 1 (1998 est.)
Military
Military branches: Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF; includes Army, Navy, and Air Force)
Military manpower--availability: males age 15-49: 925,834 (1999 est.)
Military manpower--fit for military service: males age 15-49: 573,093 (1999 est.)
Military expenditures--dollar figure: $445 million (1997)
Military expenditures--percent of GDP: 5% (1997)
Transnational Issues
Disputes--international: Israeli troops in southern Lebanon since June 1982; Syrian troops in northern, central, and eastern Lebanon since October 1976
Illicit drugs: inconsequential producer of hashish and heroin; some heroine and cocaine processing mostly in the Bekaa valley; a Lebanese/Syrian eradication campaign started in the early 1990s has practically eliminated the opium and cannabis crops
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@Lesotho -------
Geography
Location: Southern Africa, an enclave of South Africa
Geographic coordinates: 29 30 S, 28 30 E
Map references: Africa
Area: total: 30,350 sq km land: 30,350 sq km water: 0 sq km
Area--comparative: slightly smaller than Maryland
Land boundaries: total: 909 km border countries: South Africa 909 km
Coastline: 0 km (landlocked)
Maritime claims: none (landlocked)
Climate: temperate; cool to cold, dry winters; hot, wet summers
Terrain: mostly highland with plateaus, hills, and mountains
Elevation extremes: lowest point: junction of the Orange and Makhaleng Rivers 1,400 m highest point: Thabana Ntlenyana 3,482 m
Natural resources: water, agricultural and grazing land, some diamonds and other minerals
Land use: arable land: 11% permanent crops: NA% permanent pastures: 66% forests and woodland: NA% other: 23% (1993 est.)
Irrigated land: 30 sq km (1993 est.)
Natural hazards: periodic droughts
Environment--current issues: population pressure forcing settlement in marginal areas results in overgrazing, severe soil erosion, and soil exhaustion; desertification; Highlands Water Project controls, stores, and redirects water to South Africa
Environment--international agreements: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Marine Life Conservation, Ozone Layer Protection signed, but not ratified: Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping
Geography--note: landlocked; surrounded by South Africa
People
Population: 2,128,950 (July 1999 est.)
Age structure: 0-14 years: 40% (male 424,355; female 422,892) 15-64 years: 56% (male 573,285; female 610,636) 65 years and over: 4% (male 40,604; female 57,178) (1999 est.)
Population growth rate: 1.8% (1999 est.)
Birth rate: 31.26 births/1,000 population (1999 est.)
Death rate: 13.23 deaths/1,000 population (1999 est.)
Net migration rate: 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (1999 est.)
Sex ratio: at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.94 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.71 male(s)/female total population: 0.95 male(s)/female (1999 est.)
Infant mortality rate: 77.58 deaths/1,000 live births (1999 est.)
Life expectancy at birth: total population: 52.99 years male: 51.37 years female: 54.65 years (1999 est.)
Total fertility rate: 4.03 children born/woman (1999 est.)
Nationality: noun: Mosotho (singular), Basotho (plural) adjective: Basotho
Ethnic groups: Sotho 99.7%, Europeans 1,600, Asians 800
Religions: Christian 80%, rest indigenous beliefs
Languages: Sesotho (southern Sotho), English (official), Zulu, Xhosa
Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 71.3% male: 81.1% female: 62.3% (1995 est.)
Government
Country name: conventional long form: Kingdom of Lesotho conventional short form: Lesotho former: Basutoland
Data code: LT
Government type: parliamentary constitutional monarchy
Capital: Maseru
Administrative divisions: 10 districts; Berea, Butha-Buthe, Leribe, Mafeteng, Maseru, Mohales Hoek, Mokhotlong, Qacha's Nek, Quthing, Thaba-Tseka
Independence: 4 October 1966 (from UK)
National holiday: Independence Day, 4 October (1966)
Constitution: 2 April 1993
Legal system: based on English common law and Roman-Dutch law; judicial review of legislative acts in High Court and Court of Appeal; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
Executive branch: chief of state: King LETSIE III (since 7 February 1996, succeeded to the throne following the death of his father, King MOSHOESHOE II, on 16 January 1996); note--King LETSIE III formerly occupied the throne (November 1990 to February 1995) while his father was in exile head of government: Prime Minister Pakalitha MOSISILI (since NA May 1998) cabinet: Cabinet elections: none; the monarch is hereditary, but, under the terms of the constitution which came into effect after the March 1993 election, the monarch is a "living symbol of national unity" with no executive or legislative powers; under traditional law the college of chiefs has the power to determine who is next in the line of succession, who shall serve as regent in the event that the successor is not of mature age, and may even depose the monarch
Legislative branch: bicameral Parliament consists of the Senate (33 members--22 principal chiefs and 11 other members appointed by the ruling party) and the Assembly (80 seats; members elected by popular vote for five-year terms); note--number of seats in the Assembly rose from 65 to 80 in the May 1998 election elections: last held 23 May 1998 (next to be held in late 1999 or early 2000) election results: percent of vote by party--LCD 61%; seats by party--LCD 79, BCP 1 note: results contested; LCD, with only 61% of the vote, won 79 out of 80 parliamentary seats based on a historical political consensus for a "winner take all" formula
Judicial branch: High Court, chief justice appointed by the monarch; Court of Appeal; Magistrate's Court; customary or traditional court
Political parties and leaders: MOSISILI, leader; Shakhane MOKHEHLE, secretary general]
International organization participation: ACP, AfDB, C, CCC, ECA, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OAU, OPCW, SACU, SADC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
Diplomatic representation in the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Dr. Eunice M. BULANE chancery: 2511 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
Diplomatic representation from the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Katherine H. PETERSON embassy: 254 Kingsway, Maseru West (Consular Section) mailing address: P. O. Box 333, Maseru 100, Lesotho
Flag description: divided diagonally from the lower hoist side corner; the upper half is white, bearing the brown silhouette of a large shield with crossed spear and club; the lower half is a diagonal blue band with a green triangle in the corner
Economy
Economy--overview: Small, landlocked, and mountainous, Lesotho's only important natural resource is water. Its economy is based on subsistence agriculture, livestock, and remittances from miners employed in South Africa. The number of such mine workers has declined steadily over the past several years. In 1996 their remittances added about 33% to GDP compared with the addition of roughly 67% in 1990. A small manufacturing base depends largely on farm products which support the milling, canning, leather, and jute industries. Agricultural products are exported primarily to South Africa. Proceeds from membership in a common customs union with South Africa form the majority of government revenue. Although drought has decreased agricultural activity over the past few years, completion of a major hydropower facility in January 1998 now permits the sale of water to South Africa, generating royalties that will be an important source of income for Lesotho. The pace of parastatal privatization has increased in recent years. Civil disorder in September 1998 destroyed 80% of the commercial infrastructure in Maseru and two other major towns. Most firms were not covered by insurance, and the rebuilding of small and medium business will be a significant challenge in terms of both economic growth and employment levels.
GDP: purchasing power parity--$5.1 billion (1997 est.)
GDP--real growth rate: 10% (1997 est.)
GDP--per capita: purchasing power parity?$2,400 (1997 est.)
GDP--composition by sector: agriculture: 14% industry: 42% services: 44% (1996 est.)
Population below poverty line: 49.2% (1993 est.)
Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: 0.9% highest 10%: 43.4% (1986-87)
Inflation rate (consumer prices): 8% (1997 est.)
Labor force: 689,000 economically active