Chapter 57
Telephone system: mediocre; local and long distance service provided throughout all regions of the country, with services primarily concentrated in the urban areas; major objective is to continue to expand and modernize long-distance network in order to keep pace with rapidly growing number of local subscriber lines; steady improvement is taking place with the recent admission of private and private-public investors, but demand for communication services is also growing rapidly domestic: local service is provided by microwave radio relay and coaxial cable, with open wire and obsolete electromechanical and manual switchboard systems still in use in rural areas; starting in the 1980s, a substantial amount of digital switch gear has been introduced for local- and long-distance service; long-distance traffic is carried mostly by coaxial cable and low-capacity microwave radio relay; since 1985, however, significant trunk capacity has been added in the form of fiber-optic cable and a domestic satellite system with 254 earth stations; cellular telephone service in four metropolitan cities international: satellite earth stations--8 Intelsat (Indian Ocean) and 1 Inmarsat (Indian Ocean Region); four gateway exchanges operating from Mumbai, New Delhi, Calcutta, and Chennai; submarine cables to Malaysia, UAE, Singapore, and Japan
Radio broadcast stations: AM 153, FM 91, shortwave 62 (1998 est.)
Radios: 111 million (1998 est.)
Television broadcast stations: 562 (82 stations have 1 kW or greater power and 480 stations have less than 1 kW of power) (1997)
Televisions: 50 million (1999 est.)
Transportation
Railways: total: 62,915 km (12,307 km electrified; 12,617 km double track) broad gauge: 40,620 km 1.676-m gauge narrow gauge: 18,501 km 1.000-m gauge; 3,794 km 0.762-m and 0.610-m gauge (1998 est.)
Highways: total: 3,319,644 km paved: 1,517,077 km unpaved: 1,802,567 km (1996 est.)
Waterways: 16,180 km; 3,631 km navigable by large vessels
Pipelines: crude oil 3,005 km; petroleum products 2,687 km; natural gas 1,700 km (1995)
Ports and harbors: Calcutta, Chennai (Madras), Cochin, Jawaharal Nehru, Kandla, Mumbai (Bombay), Vishakhapatnam
Merchant marine: total: 311 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 6,627,497 GRT/11,038,723 DWT ships by type: bulk 126, cargo 63, chemical tanker 11, combination bulk 2, combination ore/oil 3, container 12, liquefied gas tanker 10, oil tanker 76, passenger-cargo 5, short-sea passenger 1, specialized tanker 2 (1998 est.)
Airports: 341 (1998 est.)
Airports--with paved runways: total: 230 over 3,047 m: 11 2,438 to 3,047 m: 48 1,524 to 2,437 m: 82 914 to 1,523 m: 70 under 914 m: 19 (1998 est.)
Airports--with unpaved runways: total: 111 2,438 to 3,047 m: 2 1,524 to 2,437 m: 8 914 to 1,523 m: 50 under 914 m: 51 (1998 est.)
Heliports: 17 (1998 est.)
Military
Military branches: Army, Navy (including naval air arm), Air Force, various security or paramilitary forces (includes Border Security Force, Assam Rifles, and Rashtriya Rifles)
Military manpower--military age: 17 years of age
Military manpower--availability: males age 15-49: 269,339,985 (1999 est.)
Military manpower--fit for military service: males age 15-49: 158,141,508 (1999 est.)
Military manpower--reaching military age annually: males: 10,661,786 (1999 est.)
Military expenditures--dollar figure: $10.012 billion (FY98/99)
Military expenditures--percent of GDP: 2.7% (FY98/99)
Transnational Issues
Disputes--international: boundary with China in dispute; status of Kashmir with Pakistan; water-sharing problems with Pakistan over the Indus River (Wular Barrage); a portion of the boundary with Bangladesh is indefinite; dispute with Bangladesh over New Moore/South Talpatty Island
Illicit drugs: world's largest producer of licit opium for the pharmaceutical trade, but an undetermined quantity of opium is diverted to illicit international drug markets; major transit country for illicit narcotics produced in neighboring countries; illicit producer of hashish and methaqualone; cultivated 2,050 hectares of illicit opium in 1997, a 34% decrease from 1996, with a potential production of 30 metric tons, a 36% decrease from 1996
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@Indian Ocean ------------
Geography
Location: body of water between Africa, Antarctica, Asia, and Australia
Geographic coordinates: 30 00 S, 80 00 E
Map references: World
Area: total: 73.6 million sq km note: includes Andaman Sea, Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal, Great Australian Bight, Gulf of Aden, Gulf of Oman, Mozambique Channel, Persian Gulf, Red Sea, Strait of Malacca, and other tributary water bodies
Area--comparative: slightly less than eight times the size of the US; third-largest ocean (after the Pacific Ocean and Atlantic Ocean, but larger than the Arctic Ocean)
Coastline: 66,526 km
Climate: northeast monsoon (December to April), southwest monsoon (June to October); tropical cyclones occur during May/June and October/November in the northern Indian Ocean and January/February in the southern Indian Ocean
Terrain: surface dominated by counterclockwise gyre (broad, circular system of currents) in the southern Indian Ocean; unique reversal of surface currents in the northern Indian Ocean; low atmospheric pressure over southwest Asia from hot, rising, summer air results in the southwest monsoon and southwest-to-northeast winds and currents, while high pressure over northern Asia from cold, falling, winter air results in the northeast monsoon and northeast-to-southwest winds and currents; ocean floor is dominated by the Mid-Indian Ocean Ridge and subdivided by the Southeast Indian Ocean Ridge, Southwest Indian Ocean Ridge, and Ninetyeast Ridge
Elevation extremes: lowest point: Java Trench -7,258 m highest point: sea level 0 m
Natural resources: oil and gas fields, fish, shrimp, sand and gravel aggregates, placer deposits, polymetallic nodules
Natural hazards: ships subject to superstructure icing in extreme south near Antarctica from May to October
Environment--current issues: endangered marine species include the dugong, seals, turtles, and whales; oil pollution in the Arabian Sea, Persian Gulf, and Red Sea
Environment--international agreements: party to: none of the selected agreements signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
Geography--note: major chokepoints include Bab el Mandeb, Strait of Hormuz, Strait of Malacca, southern access to the Suez Canal, and the Lombok Strait
Government
Data code: none; the US Government has not approved a standard for hydrographic codes--see the Cross-Reference List of Hydrographic Codes appendix
Economy
Economy--overview: The Indian Ocean provides major sea routes connecting the Middle East, Africa, and East Asia with Europe and the Americas. It carries a particularly heavy traffic of petroleum and petroleum products from the oilfields of the Persian Gulf and Indonesia. Its fish are of great and growing importance to the bordering countries for domestic consumption and export. Fishing fleets from Russia, Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan also exploit the Indian Ocean, mainly for shrimp and tuna. Large reserves of hydrocarbons are being tapped in the offshore areas of Saudi Arabia, Iran, India, and western Australia. An estimated 40% of the world's offshore oil production comes from the Indian Ocean. Beach sands rich in heavy minerals and offshore placer deposits are actively exploited by bordering countries, particularly India, South Africa, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and Thailand.
Communications
Telephone system: international: submarine cables from India to UAE and Malaysia and from Sri Lanka to Djibouti and Indonesia
Transportation
Ports and harbors: Calcutta (India), Chennai (Madras; India), Colombo (Sri Lanka), Durban (South Africa), Jakarta (Indonesia), Melbourne (Australia), Mumbai (Bombay; India), Richards Bay (South Africa)
Transnational Issues
Disputes--international: some maritime disputes (see littoral states)
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@Indonesia ---------
Introduction
Background: Indonesia declared its independence in 1945 from the Netherlands, a claim disputed, then recognized by the Dutch in 1949. In 1975 Indonesian troops occupied Portuguese East Timor. Current issues include implementing IMF-mandated reforms (particularly restructuring and recapitalizing the insolvent banking sector), effecting a transition to a popularly elected government, addressing longstanding grievances over the role of the ethnic Chinese business class and charges of cronyism and corruption, alleged human rights violations by the military, the role of the military and religion in politics, and growing pressures for some form of independence or autonomy by Aceh, Irian Jaya, and East Timor.
Geography
Location: Southeastern Asia, archipelago between the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean
Geographic coordinates: 5 00 S, 120 00 E
Map references: Southeast Asia
Area: total: 1,919,440 sq km land: 1,826,440 sq km water: 93,000 sq km
Area--comparative: slightly less than three times the size of Texas
Land boundaries: total: 2,602 km border countries: Malaysia 1,782 km, Papua New Guinea 820 km
Coastline: 54,716 km
Maritime claims: measured from claimed archipelagic baselines exclusive economic zone: 200 nm territorial sea: 12 nm
Climate: tropical; hot, humid; more moderate in highlands
Terrain: mostly coastal lowlands; larger islands have interior mountains
Elevation extremes: lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m highest point: Puncak Jaya 5,030 m
Natural resources: petroleum, tin, natural gas, nickel, timber, bauxite, copper, fertile soils, coal, gold, silver
Land use: arable land: 10% permanent crops: 7% permanent pastures: 7% forests and woodland: 62% other: 14% (1993 est.)
Irrigated land: 45,970 sq km (1993 est.)
Natural hazards: occasional floods, severe droughts, tsunamis, earthquakes, volcanoes
Environment--current issues: deforestation; water pollution from industrial wastes, sewage; air pollution in urban areas; smoke and haze from forest fires
Environment--international agreements: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertication, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Marine Life Conservation
Geography--note: archipelago of 17,000 islands (6,000 inhabited); straddles Equator; strategic location astride or along major sea lanes from Indian Ocean to Pacific Ocean
People
Population: 216,108,345 (July 1999 est.)
Age structure: 0-14 years: 30% (male 33,367,287; female 32,411,786) 15-64 years: 65% (male 70,541,893; female 70,866,972) 65 years and over: 5% (male 3,936,415; female 4,983,992) (1999 est.)
Population growth rate: 1.46% (1999 est.)
Birth rate: 22.78 births/1,000 population (1999 est.)
Death rate: 8.14 deaths/1,000 population (1999 est.)
Net migration rate: 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (1999 est.)
Sex ratio: at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.03 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.79 male(s)/female total population: 1 male(s)/female (1999 est.)
Infant mortality rate: 57.3 deaths/1,000 live births (1999 est.)
Life expectancy at birth: total population: 62.92 years male: 60.67 years female: 65.29 years (1999 est.)
Total fertility rate: 2.57 children born/woman (1999 est.)
Nationality: noun: Indonesian(s) adjective: Indonesian
Ethnic groups: Javanese 45%, Sundanese 14%, Madurese 7.5%, coastal Malays 7.5%, other 26%
Religions: Muslim 88%, Protestant 5%, Roman Catholic 3%, Hindu 2%, Buddhist 1%, other 1% (1998)
Languages: Bahasa Indonesia (official, modified form of Malay), English, Dutch, local dialects, the most widely spoken of which is Javanese
Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 83.8% male: 89.6% female: 78% (1995 est.)
Government
Country name: conventional long form: Republic of Indonesia conventional short form: Indonesia local long form: Republik Indonesia local short form: Indonesia former: Netherlands East Indies; Dutch East Indies
Data code: ID
Government type: republic
Capital: Jakarta
Administrative divisions: 24 provinces (propinsi-propinsi, singular--propinsi), 2 special regions* (daerah-daerah istimewa, singular--daerah istimewa), and 1 special capital city district** (daerah khusus ibukota); Aceh*, Bali, Bengkulu, Irian Jaya, Jakarta Raya**, Jambi, Jawa Barat, Jawa Tengah, Jawa Timur, Kalimantan Barat, Kalimantan Selatan, Kalimantan Tengah, Kalimantan Timur, Lampung, Maluku, Nusa Tenggara Barat, Nusa Tenggara Timur, Riau, Sulawesi Selatan, Sulawesi Tengah, Sulawesi Tenggara, Sulawesi Utara, Sumatera Barat, Sumatera Selatan, Sumatera Utara, Timor Timur, Yogyakarta*
Independence: 17 August 1945 (proclaimed independence; on 27 December 1949, Indonesia became legally independent from the Netherlands)
National holiday: Independence Day, 17 August (1945)
Constitution: August 1945, abrogated by Federal Constitution of 1949 and Provisional Constitution of 1950, restored 5 July 1959
Legal system: based on Roman-Dutch law, substantially modified by indigenous concepts and by new criminal procedures code; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Suffrage: 17 years of age; universal and married persons regardless of age
Executive branch: note: on 21 May 1998--less than three months after being selected for a seventh five-year term--President Gen. (Ret.) SOEHARTO resigned from office; immediately following his resignation he announced that Vice President HABIBIE would assume the presidency for the remainder of the term which expires in 2003; on 28 May 1998, HABIBIE and legislative leaders announced an agreement to select a new president in 1999 chief of state: President Bacharuddin J. HABIBIE (since 21 May 1998); note--the president is both the chief of state and head of government head of government: President Bacharuddin J. HABIBIE (since 21 May 1998); note--the president is both the chief of state and head of government cabinet: Cabinet election: president and vice president selected by consensus by the People's Consultative Assembly for five-year terms; selection last held 10 March 1998 (next to be held by 10 November 1999) election results: Gen. (Ret.) SOEHARTO selected president by consensus by the People's Consultative Assembly; Bacharuddin J. HABIBIE selected vice president by consensus by the People's Consultative Assembly; note--Vice President HABIBIE assumed the presidency after SOEHARTO's resignation
Legislative branch: unicameral House of Representatives or Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat (DPR) (500 seats; 425 elected by popular vote, 75 are appointed military representatives; members serve five-year terms) elections: last held 29 May 1997 (next to be held 7 June 1999) election results: percent of vote by party--Golkar 74.5%, PPP 22.43%, PDI 3.07%; seats by party--Golkar 325, PPP 89, PDI 11 note: the People's Consultative Assembly (Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat or MPR) includes the DPR plus 200 indirectly selected members; it meets every five years to elect the president and vice president and to approve the broad outlines of national policy
Judicial branch: Supreme Court (Mahkamah Agung), the judges are appointed by the president
Political parties and leaders: Golkar (de facto ruling political Indonesia Democracy Party or PDI (federation of former Nationalist chairman]
International organization participation: APEC, AsDB, ASEAN, CCC, CP, ESCAP, FAO, G-15, G-19, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO, ITU, NAM, OIC, OPCW, OPEC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNIKOM, UNMIBH, UNMOP, UNMOT, UNOMIG, UNPREDEP, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO
Diplomatic representation in the US: chief of mission: Ambassador DORODJATUN Kuntoro-Jakti chancery: 2020 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20036 consulate(s) general: Chicago, Houston, Los Angeles, New York, and San Francisco
Diplomatic representation from the US: chief of mission: Ambassador J. Stapleton ROY embassy: Medan Merdeka Selatan 5, Jakarta mailing address: Unit 8129, Box 1, APO AP 96520 consulate(s) general: Surabaya
Flag description: two equal horizontal bands of red (top) and white; similar to the flag of Monaco, which is shorter; also similar to the flag of Poland, which is white (top) and red
Economy
Economy--overview: The collapse of the rupiah in late 1997 and early 1998 caused GDP to contract by an estimated 13.7% in 1998 because of Indonesian firms' reliance on short-term dollar-denominated debt and high levels of nonperforming loans in the banking sector. The Indonesian Government initially wavered on meeting the conditions it agreed to in exchange for a $42 billion IMF assistance package, contributing to further loss in investor confidence and outflows of capital. Riots that in many cases targeted ethnic Chinese business owners also set back chances that Indonesia would quickly stabilize its financial crisis and contributed to President SOEHARTO's resignation on 21 May 1998. His successor, B.J. HABIBIE, improved cooperation with the IMF. The money supply--which expanded rapidly early in the year to prop up banks hit by deposit runs--was tightened within a few months, and by October, inflation--which reached a 77% annual rate--was significantly dampened. The government also announced a bank recapitalization program in late 1998, but by early 1999 the plan faced growing challenges over its reliance on public funds. Doubts about whether the program is adequate underlie forecasts of continued--although much less severe--GDP contraction for 1999. Signs of spreading unrest and sectarian violence and concern that social instability will increase as the 7 June 1999 national election approaches also contribute to pessimism about the economy, particularly because foreign investors remain reluctant to begin to increase capital inflows again. The next government will face the challenge of establishing a macroeconomic policy framework that addresses longstanding grievances and inequities underlying much of the current unrest without hampering an economic recovery.
GDP: purchasing power parity--$602 billion (1998 est.)
GDP--real growth rate: -13.7% (1998 est.)
GDP--per capita: purchasing power parity?$2,830 (1998 est.)
GDP--composition by sector: agriculture: 18.8% industry: 40.3% services: 40.9% (1998 est.)
Population below poverty line: NA%
Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: 3.6% highest 10%: 28.3% (1995)
Inflation rate (consumer prices): 77% (1998 est.)
Labor force: 87 million (1997 est.)
Labor force--by occupation: agriculture 41%, trade, restaurant, and hotel 19.8%, manufacturing 14%, construction 4.8%, transport and communications 4.75%, other 15.65% (1997)
Unemployment rate: 15%-20% (1998 est.)
Budget: revenues: $35 billion (of which $15 billion is from international financial institutions) expenditures: $35 billion, including capital expenditures of $12 billion (FY98/99 est.)
Industries: petroleum and natural gas; textiles, apparel, and footwear; mining, cement, chemical fertilizers, plywood; rubber; food; tourism
Industrial production growth rate: -13.7% (1998 est.)
Electricity--production: 66.8 billion kWh (1996)
Electricity--production by source: fossil fuel: 82.34% hydro: 14.97% nuclear: 0% other: 2.69% (1996)
Electricity--consumption: 66.8 billion kWh (1996)
Electricity--exports: 0 kWh (1996)
Electricity--imports: 0 kWh (1996)
Agriculture--products: rice, cassava (tapioca), peanuts, rubber, cocoa, coffee, palm oil, copra; poultry, beef, pork, eggs
Exports: $49 billion (f.o.b., 1998 est.)
Exports--commodities: garments 7.9%, textiles 7.3%, gas 6.4%, electrical appliances 5.9%, pulp and paper 5.3%, oil 4.7%, plywood 4.7%
Exports--partners: Japan 18%, EU 15%, US 14%, Singapore 13%, South Korea 5%, Hong Kong 4%, China 3.9%, Taiwan 3.4% (1998 est.)
Imports: $24 billion (f.o.b., 1998 est.)
Imports--commodities: manufactures 75.3%, raw materials 9.0%, foodstuffs 7.8%, fuels 7.7%
Imports--partners: Japan 20%, US 13%, Germany 9%, Singapore 9%, Australia 6.4%, South Korea 5.4%, Taiwan 3.4%, China 3.1% (1998 est.)
Debt--external: $136 billion (yearend 1997 est.)
Economic aid--recipient: $43 billion from IMF program and other official external financing (1997-2000)
Currency: Indonesian rupiah (Rp)
Exchange rates: Indonesian rupiahs (Rp) per US$1--8,714.3 (January 1999), 10,013.6 (1998), 2,909.4 (1997), 2,342.3 (1996), 2,248.6 (1995), 2,160.8 (1994)
Fiscal year: 1 April--31 March
Communications
Telephones: 1,276,600 (1993 est.)
Telephone system: domestic service fair, international service good domestic: interisland microwave system and HF radio police net; domestic satellite communications system international: satellite earth stations--2 Intelsat (1 Indian Ocean and 1 Pacific Ocean)
Radio broadcast stations: AM 618, FM 38, shortwave 0
Radios: 28.1 million (1992 est.)
Television broadcast stations: 41 (of which 18 are government-owned and 23 are commercial) (1997)
Televisions: 11.5 million (1992 est.)
Transportation
Railways: total: 6,458 km narrow gauge: 5,961 km 1.067-m gauge (101 km electrified; 101 km double track); 497 km 0.750-m gauge (1995)
Highways: total: 342,700 km paved: 158,670 km unpaved: 184,030 km (1997 est.)
Waterways: 21,579 km total; Sumatra 5,471 km, Java and Madura 820 km, Kalimantan 10,460 km, Sulawesi (Celebes) 241 km, Irian Jaya 4,587 km
Pipelines: crude oil 2,505 km; petroleum products 456 km; natural gas 1,703 km (1989)
Ports and harbors: Cilacap, Cirebon, Jakarta, Kupang, Palembang, Semarang, Surabaya, Ujungpandang
Merchant marine: total: 587 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 2,707,004 GRT/3,701,001 DWT ships by type: bulk 37, cargo 348, chemical tanker 8, container 20, liquefied gas tanker 5, livestock carrier 1, oil tanker 116, passenger 9, passenger-cargo 13, roll-on/roll-off cargo 11, short-sea passenger 7, specialized tanker 7, vehicle carrier 5 (1998 est.)
Airports: 443 (1998 est.)
Airports--with paved runways: total: 125 over 3,047 m: 4 2,438 to 3,047 m: 11 1,524 to 2,437 m: 41 914 to 1,523 m: 39 under 914 m: 30 (1998 est.)
Airports--with unpaved runways: total: 318 1,524 to 2,437 m: 5 914 to 1,523 m: 31 under 914 m: 282 (1998 est.)
Heliports: 4 (1998 est.)
Military
Military branches: Army, Navy, Air Force, National Police
Military manpower--military age: 18 years of age
Military manpower--availability: males age 15-49: 61,087,521 (1999 est.)
Military manpower--fit for military service: males age 15-49: 35,804,125 (1999 est.)
Military manpower--reaching military age annually: males: 2,268,638 (1999 est.)
Military expenditures--dollar figure: $959.7 million (FY97/98)
Military expenditures--percent of GDP: 1% (FY97/98)
Transnational Issues
Disputes--international: Indonesian sovereignty over Timor Timur (East Timor Province), which is not recognized by the UN, is the subject of discussions between the UN, Indonesia, and Portugal; two islands in dispute with Malaysia