Chapter 28
Economy--overview: Beginning in late 1978 the Chinese leadership has been trying to move the economy from a sluggish Soviet-style centrally planned economy to a more market-oriented economy but still within a rigid political framework of Communist Party control. To this end the authorities switched to a system of household responsibility in agriculture in place of the old collectivization, increased the authority of local officials and plant managers in industry, permitted a wide variety of small-scale enterprise in services and light manufacturing, and opened the economy to increased foreign trade and investment. The result has been a quadrupling of GDP since 1978. Agricultural output doubled in the 1980s, and industry also posted major gains, especially in coastal areas near Hong Kong and opposite Taiwan, where foreign investment helped spur output of both domestic and export goods. On the darker side, the leadership has often experienced in its hybrid system the worst results of socialism (bureaucracy, lassitude, corruption) and of capitalism (windfall gains and stepped-up inflation). Beijing thus has periodically backtracked, retightening central controls at intervals. In late 1993 China's leadership approved additional long-term reforms aimed at giving still more play to market-oriented institutions and at strengthening the center's control over the financial system; state enterprises would continue to dominate many key industries in what was now termed "a socialist market economy". In 1995-97 inflation dropped sharply, reflecting tighter monetary policies and stronger measures to control food prices. At the same time, the government struggled to (a) collect revenues due from provinces, businesses, and individuals; (b) reduce corruption and other economic crimes; and (c) keep afloat the large state-owned enterprises, most of which had not participated in the vigorous expansion of the economy and many of which had been losing the ability to pay full wages and pensions. From 60 to 100 million surplus rural workers are adrift between the villages and the cities, many subsisting through part-time low-paying jobs. Popular resistance, changes in central policy, and loss of authority by rural cadres have weakened China's population control program, which is essential to maintaining growth in living standards. Another long-term threat to continued rapid economic growth is the deterioration in the environment, notably air pollution, soil erosion, and the steady fall of the water table especially in the north. China continues to lose arable land because of erosion and economic development. The next few years may witness increasing tensions between a highly centralized political system and an increasingly decentralized economic system. Economic growth probably will slow to more moderate levels in 1999-2000.
GDP: purchasing power parity--$4.42 trillion (1998 est.)
GDP--real growth rate: 7.8% (1998 est.) (official figures may substantially overstate growth)
GDP--per capita: purchasing power parity?$3,600 (1998 est.)
GDP--composition by sector: agriculture: 19% industry: 49% services: 32% (1997 est.)
Population below poverty line: NA%
Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: 2.2% highest 10%: 30.9% (1995)
Inflation rate (consumer prices): -0.8% (1998 est.)
Labor force: 696 million (1997 est.)
Labor force--by occupation: agriculture 50%, industry 24%, services 26% (1997)
Unemployment rate: officially 3% in urban areas; probably 8%-10%; substantial unemployment and underemployment in rural areas (1998 est.)
Budget: revenues: $NA expenditures: $NA, including capital expenditures of $NA
Industries: iron and steel, coal, machine building, armaments, textiles and apparel, petroleum, cement, chemical fertilizers, footwear, toys, food processing, autos, consumer electronics, telecommunications
Industrial production growth rate: 8.8% (1998 est.)
Electricity--production: 1.16 trillion kWh (1998)
Electricity--production by source: fossil fuel: 93% hydro: 6% nuclear: 1% other: 0% (1996 est.)
Electricity--consumption: 994.921 billion kWh (1996)
Electricity--exports: 6.025 billion kWh (1996)
Electricity--imports: 755 million kWh (1996)
Agriculture--products: rice, wheat, potatoes, sorghum, peanuts, tea, millet, barley, cotton, oilseed; pork; fish
Exports: $183.8 billion (f.o.b., 1998)
Exports--commodities: electrical machinery and equipment, machinery and mechanical appliances, woven apparel, knit apparel, footwear, toys and sporting goods (1998)
Exports--partners: Hong Kong 21%, US 21%, Japan 14%, Germany, South Korea, Netherlands, UK, Singapore, Taiwan (1997)
Imports: $140.17 billion (c.i.f., 1998)
Imports--commodities: electrical machinery and equipment, machinery and mechanical appliances, plastics, iron and steel, scientific and photograph equipment, paper and paper board (1998)
Imports--partners: Japan 20%, US 12%, Taiwan 12%, South Korea 11%, Germany, Hong Kong, Singapore, Russia (1997)
Debt--external: $159 billion (1998 est.)
Economic aid--recipient: $6.222 billion (1995)
Currency: 1 yuan (Y) = 10 jiao
Exchange rates: yuan (Y) per US$1--8.28 (February 1999), 8.2779 (December 1998), 8.2790 (1998), 8.2898 (1997), 8.3142 (1996), 8.3514 (1995), 8.6187 (1994) note: beginning 1 January 1994, the People's Bank of China quotes the midpoint rate against the US dollar based on the previous day's prevailing rate in the interbank foreign exchange market
Fiscal year: calendar year
Communications
Telephones: 105 million (1998 est.)
Telephone system: domestic and international services are increasingly available for private use; unevenly distributed domestic system serves principal cities, industrial centers, and all townships domestic: interprovincial fiber-optic trunk lines and cellular telephone systems have been installed; a domestic satellite system with 55 earth stations is in place international: satellite earth stations--5 Intelsat (4 Pacific Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean), 1 Intersputnik (Indian Ocean Region) and 1 Inmarsat (Pacific and Indian Ocean Regions); several international fiber-optic links to Japan, South Korea, Hong Kong, Russia, and Germany
Radio broadcast stations: AM 569, FM NA, shortwave 173
Radios: 216.5 million (1992 est.)
Television broadcast stations: 209 (China Central Television, government-owned; in addition there are 31 provincial TV stations and nearly 3,000 city TV stations) (1997)
Televisions: 300 million
Transportation
Railways: total: 64,900 km (including 5,400 km of provincial "local" rails) standard gauge: 61,300 km 1.435-m gauge (12,000 km electrified; 20,000 km double track) narrow gauge: 3,600 km 0.750-m gauge local industrial lines (1998 est.) note: a new total of 68,000 km has been estimated for early 1999
Highways: total: 1.21 million km paved: 271,300 km (with at least 24,474 km of motorways) unpaved: 938,700 km (1998 est.)
Waterways: 109,800 km navigable (1997)
Pipelines: crude oil 9,070 km; petroleum products 560 km; natural gas 9,383 km (1998)
Ports and harbors: Dalian, Fuzhou, Guangzhou, Haikou, Huangpu, Lianyungang, Nanjing, Nantong, Ningbo, Qingdao, Qinhuangdao, Shanghai, Shantou, Tianjin, Xiamen, Xingang, Yantai, Zhanjiang
Merchant marine: total: 1,759 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 16,828,349 GRT/24,801,291 DWT ships by type: barge carrier 2, bulk 330, cargo 855, chemical tanker 21, combination bulk 10, combination ore/oil 1, container 121, liquefied gas tanker 20, multifunction large-load carrier 6, oil tanker 245, passenger 8, passenger-cargo 47, refrigerated cargo 25, roll-on/roll-off cargo 24, short-sea passenger 43, vehicle carrier 1 (1998 est.)
Airports: 206 (1996 est.)
Airports--with paved runways: total: 192 over 3,047 m: 18 2,438 to 3,047 m: 65 1,524 to 2,437 m: 90 914 to 1,523 m: 13 under 914 m: 6 (1996 est.)
Airports--with unpaved runways: total: 14 1,524 to 2,437 m: 8 914 to 1,523 m: 5 under 914 m: 1 (1996 est.)
Military
Military branches: People's Liberation Army (PLA), which includes the Ground Forces, Navy (includes Marines and Naval Aviation), Air Force, Second Artillery Corps (the strategic missile force), People's Armed Police (internal security troops, nominally subordinate to Ministry of Public Security, but included by the Chinese as part of the "armed forces" and considered to be an adjunct to the PLA in wartime)
Military manpower--military age: 18 years of age
Military manpower--availability: males age 15-49: 361,267,706 (1999 est.)
Military manpower--fit for military service: males age 15-49: 198,398,601 (1999 est.)
Military manpower--reaching military age annually: males: 10,273,696 (1999 est.)
Military expenditures--dollar figure: $12.608 billion (FY99); note-Western analysts believe that China's real defense spending is several times higher than the official figure because several significant items are funded elsewhere
Military expenditures--percent of GDP: NA%
Transnational Issues
Disputes--international: boundary with India in dispute; dispute over at least two small sections of the boundary with Russia remain to be settled, despite 1997 boundary agreement; most of the boundary with Tajikistan in dispute; 33-km section of boundary with North Korea in the Paektu-san (mountain) area is indefinite; involved in a complex dispute over the Spratly Islands with Malaysia, Philippines, Taiwan, Vietnam, and possibly Brunei; maritime boundary dispute with Vietnam in the Gulf of Tonkin; Paracel Islands occupied by China, but claimed by Vietnam and Taiwan; claims Japanese-administered Senkaku-shoto (Senkaku Islands/Diaoyu Tai), as does Taiwan; sections of land border with Vietnam are indefinite
Illicit drugs: major transshipment point for heroin produced in the Golden Triangle; growing domestic drug abuse problem
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@Christmas Island ----------------
Geography
Location: Southeastern Asia, island in the Indian Ocean, south of Indonesia
Geographic coordinates: 10 30 S, 105 40 E
Map references: Southeast Asia
Area: total: 135 sq km land: 135 sq km water: 0 sq km
Area--comparative: about 0.7 times the size of Washington, DC
Land boundaries: 0 km
Coastline: 138.9 km
Maritime claims: contiguous zone: 12 nm exclusive fishing zone: 200 nm territorial sea: 3 nm
Climate: tropical; heat and humidity moderated by trade winds
Terrain: steep cliffs along coast rise abruptly to central plateau
Elevation extremes: lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m highest point: Murray Hill 361 m
Natural resources: phosphate
Land use: arable land: NA% permanent crops: NA% permanent pastures: NA% forests and woodland: NA% other: 100% (1993 est.)
Irrigated land: NA sq km
Natural hazards: the narrow fringing reef surrounding the island can be a maritime hazard
Environment--current issues: NA
Environment--international agreements: party to: NA signed, but not ratified: NA
Geography--note: located along major sea lanes of Indian Ocean
People
Population: 2,373 (July 1999 est.)
Age structure: 0-14 years: NA 15-64 years: NA 65 years and over: NA
Population growth rate: 7.77% (1999 est.)
Birth rate: NA births/1,000 population
Death rate: NA deaths/1,000 population
Net migration rate: NA migrant(s)/1,000 population
Infant mortality rate: NA deaths/1,000 live births
Life expectancy at birth: total population: NA male: NA female: NA
Total fertility rate: NA children born/woman
Nationality: noun: Christmas Islander(s) adjective: Christmas Island
Ethnic groups: Chinese 61%, Malay 25%, European 11%, other 3%, no indigenous population
Religions: Buddhist 55%, Christian 15%, Muslim 10%, other 20% (1991)
Languages: English
Government
Country name: conventional long form: Territory of Christmas Island conventional short form: Christmas Island
Data code: KT
Dependency status: territory of Australia; administered from Canberra by the Australian Department of the Environment, Sport and Territories
Government type: NA
Capital: The Settlement
Administrative divisions: none (territory of Australia)
Independence: none (territory of Australia)
National holiday: NA
Constitution: Christmas Island Act of 1958
Legal system: under the authority of the governor general of Australia and Australian law
Executive branch: chief of state: Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952), represented by the Australian governor general head of government: Administrator (acting) Graham NICHOLLS (since NA) elections: none; the monarch is hereditary; administrator appointed by the governor general of Australia and represents the monarch and Australia
Legislative branch: unicameral Christmas Island Shire Council (9 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve one-year terms) elections: last held NA December 1998 (next to be held NA December 1999) election results: percent of vote--NA; seats--independents 9
Judicial branch: Supreme Court
Political parties and leaders: none
International organization participation: none
Diplomatic representation in the US: none (territory of Australia)
Diplomatic representation from the US: none (territory of Australia)
Flag description: the flag of Australia is used
Economy
Economy--overview: Phosphate mining had been the only significant economic activity, but in December 1987 the Australian Government closed the mine. In 1990, the mine was reopened by private operators. Australian-based Casinos Austria International Ltd. built a $45 million casino on Christmas Island.
GDP: purchasing power parity--$NA
GDP--real growth rate: NA%
GDP--per capita: purchasing power parity?$NA
GDP--composition by sector: agriculture: NA% industry: NA% services: NA%
Population below poverty line: NA%
Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: NA% highest 10%: NA%
Inflation rate (consumer prices): NA%
Labor force: NA
Labor force--by occupation: tourism 400 people, mining 100 people
Unemployment rate: NA%
Budget: revenues: $NA expenditures: $NA, including capital expenditures of $NA
Industries: tourism, phosphate extraction (near depletion)
Industrial production growth rate: NA%
Electricity--production: NA kWh
Electricity--production by source: fossil fuel: NA% hydro: NA% nuclear: NA% other: NA%
Electricity--consumption: NA kWh
Electricity--exports: NA kWh
Electricity--imports: NA kWh
Agriculture--products: NA
Exports: $NA
Exports--commodities: phosphate
Exports--partners: Australia, NZ
Imports: $NA
Imports--commodities: consumer goods
Imports--partners: principally Australia
Debt--external: $NA
Economic aid--recipient: $NA
Currency: 1 Australian dollar ($A) = 100 cents
Exchange rates: Australian dollars ($A) per US$1--1.5853 (January 1999), 1.5888 (1998), 1.3439 (1997), 1.2773 (1996), 1.3486 (1995), 1.3667 (1994)
Fiscal year: 1 July--30 June
Communications
Telephones: NA
Telephone system: domestic: NA international: NA note: external telephone and telex services are provided by Intelsat satellite
Radio broadcast stations: AM 1, FM 0, shortwave 0
Radios: 500 (1992)
Television broadcast stations: NA (1997)
Televisions: 350 (1992)
Transportation
Railways: 24 km to serve phosphate mines
Highways: total: NA km paved: NA km unpaved: NA km
Ports and harbors: Flying Fish Cove
Merchant marine: none
Airports: 1 (1998 est.)
Airports--with paved runways: total: 1 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 (1998 est.)
Military
Military--note: defense is the responsibility of Australia
Transnational Issues
Disputes--international: none
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@Clipperton Island -----------------
Geography
Location: Middle America, atoll in the North Pacific Ocean, 1,120 km southwest of Mexico
Geographic coordinates: 10 17 N, 109 13 W
Map references: World
Area: total: 7 sq km land: 7 sq km water: 0 sq km
Area--comparative: about 12 times the size of The Mall in Washington, DC
Land boundaries: 0 km
Coastline: 11.1 km
Maritime claims: territorial sea: 12 nm
Climate: tropical, humid, average temperature 20-32 degrees C, rains May-October
Terrain: coral atoll
Elevation extremes: lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m highest point: Rocher Clipperton 29 m
Natural resources: none
Land use: arable land: 0% permanent crops: 0% permanent pastures: 0% forests and woodland: 0% other: 100% (all coral)
Irrigated land: 0 sq km (1993)
Natural hazards: subject to tornadoes
Environment--current issues: NA
Environment--international agreements: party to: NA signed, but not ratified: NA
Geography--note: reef about 8 km in circumference
People
Population: uninhabited
Government
Country name: conventional long form: none conventional short form: Clipperton Island local long form: none local short form: Ile Clipperton former: sometimes called Ile de la Passion
Data code: IP
Dependency status: possession of France; administered by France from French Polynesia by a high commissioner of the Republic
Legal system: NA
Diplomatic representation in the US: none (dependent territory of France)
Diplomatic representation from the US: none (dependent territory of France)
Flag description: the flag of France is used
Economy
Economy--overview: Although 115 species of fish have been identified in the territorial waters of Clipperton Island, the only economic activity is a tuna fishing station.
Transportation
Ports and harbors: none; offshore anchorage only
Military
Military--note: defense is the responsibility of France
Transnational Issues
Disputes--international: none
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@Cocos (Keeling) Islands -----------------------
Geography
Location: Southeastern Asia, group of islands in the Indian Ocean, south of Indonesia, about one-half of the way from Australia to Sri Lanka
Geographic coordinates: 12 30 S, 96 50 E
Map references: Southeast Asia
Area: total: 14 sq km land: 14 sq km water: 0 sq km note: includes the two main islands of West Island and Home Island
Area--comparative: about 24 times the size of The Mall in Washington, DC
Land boundaries: 0 km
Coastline: 2.6 km
Maritime claims: exclusive fishing zone: 200 nm territorial sea: 3 nm
Climate: pleasant, modified by the southeast trade wind for about nine months of the year; moderate rainfall
Terrain: flat, low-lying coral atolls
Elevation extremes: lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m highest point: unnamed location 5 m
Natural resources: fish
Land use: arable land: NA% permanent crops: NA% permanent pastures: NA% forests and woodland: NA% other: 100% (1993 est.)
Irrigated land: NA sq km
Natural hazards: cyclones may occur in the early months of the year
Environment--current issues: fresh water resources are limited to rainwater accumulations in natural underground reservoirs
Environment--international agreements: party to: NA signed, but not ratified: NA
Geography--note: two coral atolls thickly covered with coconut palms and other vegetation
People
Population: 636 (July 1999 est.)
Age structure: 0-14 years: NA 15-64 years: NA 65 years and over: NA (July 1998 est.)
Population growth rate: -0.21% (1999 est.)
Birth rate: NA births/1,000 population
Death rate: NA deaths/1,000 population
Net migration rate: NA migrant(s)/1,000 population
Infant mortality rate: NA deaths/1,000 live births
Life expectancy at birth: total population: NA male: NA female: NA
Total fertility rate: NA children born/woman
Nationality: noun: Cocos Islander(s) adjective: Cocos Islander
Ethnic groups: Europeans, Cocos Malays
Religions: Sunni Muslim 57%, Christian 22%, other 21% (1981 est.)
Languages: English, Malay
Government
Country name: conventional long form: Territory of Cocos (Keeling) Islands conventional short form: Cocos (Keeling) Islands
Data code: CK
Dependency status: territory of Australia; administered from Canberra by the Australian Department of the Environment, Sport and Territories
Government type: NA
Capital: West Island
Administrative divisions: none (territory of Australia)
Independence: none (territory of Australia)
National holiday: NA
Constitution: Cocos (Keeling) Islands Act of 1955
Legal system: based upon the laws of Australia and local laws
Suffrage: NA
Executive branch: chief of state: Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1952), represented by the Australian governor general head of government: Administrator (acting) Maureen ELLIS (since NA) cabinet: NA elections: none; the monarch is hereditary; administrator appointed by the governor general of Australia and represents the monarch and Australia
Legislative branch: unicameral Cocos (Keeling) Islands Shire Council (NA seats)
Judicial branch: Supreme Court
Political parties and leaders: none
International organization participation: none
Diplomatic representation in the US: none (territory of Australia)
Diplomatic representation from the US: none (territory of Australia)
Flag description: the flag of Australia is used
Economy
Economy--overview: Grown throughout the islands, coconuts are the sole cash crop. Copra and fresh coconuts are the major export earners. Small local gardens and fishing contribute to the food supply, but additional food and most other necessities must be imported from Australia.
GDP: purchasing power parity--$NA
GDP--real growth rate: NA%
GDP--per capita: purchasing power parity?$NA
GDP--composition by sector: agriculture: NA% industry: NA% services: NA%
Population below poverty line: NA%
Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: NA% highest 10%: NA%
Inflation rate (consumer prices): NA%
Labor force: NA
Labor force--by occupation: the Cocos Islands Cooperative Society Ltd. employs construction workers, stevedores, and lighterage worker operations; tourism employs others
Budget: revenues: $NA expenditures: $NA, including capital expenditures of $NA
Industries: copra products and tourism
Industrial production growth rate: NA%
Electricity--production: NA kWh
Electricity--production by source: fossil fuel: NA% hydro: NA% nuclear: NA% other: NA%
Electricity--consumption: NA kWh
Electricity--exports: NA kWh
Electricity--imports: NA kWh
Agriculture--products: vegetables, bananas, pawpaws, coconuts
Exports: $NA
Exports--commodities: copra
Exports--partners: Australia
Imports: $NA
Imports--commodities: foodstuffs
Imports--partners: Australia
Debt--external: $NA
Economic aid--recipient: $NA
Currency: 1 Australian dollar ($A) = 100 cents
Exchange rates: Australian dollars ($A) per US$1--1.5853 (January 1999), 1.5888 (1998), 1.3439 (1997), 1.2773 (1996), 1.3486 (1995), 1.3667 (1994)
Fiscal year: 1 July--30 June
Communications
Telephones: NA
Telephone system: domestic: NA international: telephone, telex, and facsimile communications with Australia and elsewhere via satellite; 1 satellite earth station of NA type
Radio broadcast stations: AM 1, FM 0, shortwave 0
Radios: 300 (1992 est.)
Television broadcast stations: 0 (1997)
Televisions: NA
Transportation
Railways: 0 km
Highways: total: NA km paved: NA km unpaved: NA km
Ports and harbors: none; lagoon anchorage only
Merchant marine: none
Airports: 1 (1998 est.)
Airports--with paved runways: total: 1 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 (1998 est.)
Military
Military--note: defense is the responsibility of Australia
Transnational Issues
Disputes--international: none