Chapter 119
Elevation extremes: lowest point: Vpadina Akchanaya -81 m (note--Sarygamysh Koli is a lake in north eastern Turkmenistan whose water levels fluctuate widely; at its shallowest, its level is -110 m; it is presently at -60 m, 20 m above Vpadina Akchanaya) highest point: Ayrybaba 3,139 m
Natural resources: petroleum, natural gas, coal, sulfur, salt
Land use: arable land: 3% permanent crops: 0% permanent pastures: 63% forests and woodland: 8% other: 26% (1993 est.)
Irrigated land: 13,000 sq km (1993 est.)
Natural hazards: NA
Environment--current issues: contamination of soil and groundwater with agricultural chemicals, pesticides; salination, water-logging of soil due to poor irrigation methods; Caspian Sea pollution; diversion of a large share of the flow of the Amu Darya into irrigation contributes to that river's inability to replenish the Aral Sea; desertification
Environment--international agreements: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Hazardous Wastes, Ozone Layer Protection signed, but not ratified: Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol
Geography--note: landlocked
People
Population: 4,366,383 (July 1999 est.)
Age structure: 0-14 years: 38% (male 845,584; female 813,223) 15-64 years: 58% (male 1,243,031; female 1,283,985) 65 years and over: 4% (male 68,496; female 112,064) (1999 est.)
Population growth rate: 1.58% (1999 est.)
Birth rate: 25.91 births/1,000 population (1999 est.)
Death rate: 8.77 deaths/1,000 population (1999 est.)
Net migration rate: -1.35 migrant(s)/1,000 population (1999 est.)
Sex ratio: at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.97 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.61 male(s)/female total population: 0.98 male(s)/female (1999 est.)
Infant mortality rate: 73.1 deaths/1,000 live births (1999 est.)
Life expectancy at birth: total population: 61.11 years male: 57.48 years female: 64.91 years (1999 est.)
Total fertility rate: 3.21 children born/woman (1999 est.)
Nationality: noun: Turkmen(s) adjective: Turkmen
Ethnic groups: Turkmen 77%, Uzbek 9.2%, Russian 6.7%, Kazakh 2%, other 5.1% (1995)
Religions: Muslim 89%, Eastern Orthodox 9%, unknown 2%
Languages: Turkmen 72%, Russian 12%, Uzbek 9%, other 7%
Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 98% male: 99% female: 97% (1989 est.)
Government
Country name: conventional long form: none conventional short form: Turkmenistan local long form: none local short form: Turkmenistan former: Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic
Data code: TX
Government type: republic
Capital: Ashgabat
Administrative divisions: 5 welayatlar (singular--welayat): Ahal Welayaty (Ashgabat), Balkan Welayaty (Nebitdag), Dashhowuz Welayaty (formerly Tashauz), Lebap Welayaty (Charjew), Mary Welayaty note: administrative divisions have the same names as their administrative centers (exceptions have the administrative center name following in parentheses)
Independence: 27 October 1991 (from the Soviet Union)
National holiday: Independence Day, 27 October (1991)
Constitution: adopted 18 May 1992
Legal system: based on civil law system
Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
Executive branch: chief of state: President and Chairman of the Cabinet of Ministers Saparmurat NIYAZOV (since 27 October 1990, when the first direct presidential election occurred); note--the president is both the chief of state and head of government head of government: President and Chairman of the Cabinet of Ministers Saparmurat NIYAZOV (since 27 October 1990, when the first direct presidential election occurred); note--the president is both the chief of state and head of government; Deputy Chairmen of the Cabinet of Ministers Mukhamed ABALAKOV (since NA), Orazgeldy AYDOGDIYEV (since NA 1992), Hudaayguly HALYKOV (since NA 1996), Rejep SAPAROV (since NA 1992), Boris SHIKHMURADOV (since NA 1993), Batyr SARJAYEV (since NA 1993), Ilaman SHIKHIYEV (since NA 1995), Yolly GURBANMURADOV (since NA 1997), Saparmurat NURIYEV (since NA 1997) cabinet: Council of Ministers appointed by the president note: NIYAZOV has been asked by various local groups, most recently on 21 December 1998 at the Second Congress of the Democratic Party, to be "president for life," but he has declined, saying the status would require an amendment to the constitution elections: president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; election last held 21 June 1992 (next to be held NA 2002; note--extension of President NIYAZOV's term for an additional five years overwhelmingly approved by national referendum held 15 January 1994); deputy chairmen of the cabinet of ministers are appointed by the president election results: Saparmurat NIYAZOV elected president without opposition; percent of vote--Saparmurat NIYAZOV 99.5%
Legislative branch: under the 1992 constitution, there are two parliamentary bodies, a unicameral People's Council or Halk Maslahaty (more than 100 seats, some of which are elected by popular vote and some of which are appointed; meets infrequently) and a unicameral Assembly or Majlis (50 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms) elections: People's Council--NA; Assembly--last held 11 December 1994 (next to be held NA December 1999) election results: Assembly--percent of vote by party--NA; seats by party--Democratic Party 45, other 5; note--all 50 preapproved by President NIYAZOV
Judicial branch: Supreme Court, judges are appointed by the president
Political parties and leaders: Democratic Party of Turkmenistan note: formal opposition parties are outlawed; unofficial, small opposition movements exist underground or in foreign countries
International organization participation: CCC, CIS, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, ECO, ESCAP, FAO, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDB, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), IOC, IOM (observer), ISO (correspondent), ITU, NAM, OIC, OPCW, OSCE, PFP, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO (observer)
Diplomatic representation in the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Halil UGUR chancery: 2207 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008
Diplomatic representation from the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Steven R. MANN embassy: 9 Pushkin Street, Ashgabat mailing address: use embassy street address
Flag description: green field with a vertical red stripe near the hoist side, containing five carpet guls (designs used in producing rugs) stacked above two crossed olive branches similar to the olive branches on the UN flag; a white crescent moon and five white stars appear in the upper corner of the field just to the fly side of the red stripe
Economy
Economy--overview: Turkmenistan is largely desert country with nomadic cattle raising, intensive agriculture in irrigated oases, and huge gas and oil resources. One-half of its irrigated land is planted in cotton, making it the world's tenth largest producer. It also possesses the world's fifth largest reserves of natural gas and substantial oil resources. Until the end of 1993, Turkmenistan had experienced less economic disruption than other former Soviet states because its economy received a boost from higher prices for oil and gas and a sharp increase in hard currency earnings. In 1994, Russia's refusal to export Turkmen gas to hard currency markets and mounting debts of its major customers in the former USSR for gas deliveries contributed to a sharp fall in industrial production and caused the budget to shift from a surplus to a slight deficit. The economy bottomed out in 1996, but high inflation continued. Furthermore, with an authoritarian ex-communist regime in power and a tribally based social structure, Turkmenistan has taken a cautious approach to economic reform, hoping to use gas and cotton sales to sustain its inefficient economy. In 1996, the government set in place a stabilization program aimed at a unified and market-based exchange rate, allocation of government credits by auction, and strict limits on budget deficits. Privatization goals remain limited. Turkmenistan is working hard to open new gas export channels through Iran and Turkey to Europe, but these will take many years to realize. In 1998 Turkmenistan faced revenue shortfalls due to the continued lack of adequate export routes for natural gas and obligations on extensive short-term external debt.
GDP: purchasing power parity--$7 billion (1998 est.)
GDP--real growth rate: 5% (1998)
GDP--per capita: purchasing power parity?$1,630 (1998 est.)
GDP--composition by sector: agriculture: 18% industry: 50% services: 32% (1996 est.)
Population below poverty line: NA%
Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: 2.7% highest 10%: 26.9% (1993)
Inflation rate (consumer prices): 19.8% (1998 est.)
Labor force: 2.34 million (1996)
Labor force--by occupation: agriculture and forestry 44%, industry and construction 19%, other 37% (1996)
Unemployment rate: NA%
Budget: revenues: $521 million expenditures: $548 million, including capital expenditures of $83 million (1996 est.)
Industries: natural gas, oil, petroleum products, textiles, food processing
Industrial production growth rate: NA%
Electricity--production: 9.484 billion kWh (1996)
Electricity--production by source: fossil fuel: 99.96% hydro: 0.04% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1996)
Electricity--consumption: 7.134 billion kWh (1996)
Electricity--exports: 2.7 billion kWh (1996)
Electricity--imports: 350 million kWh (1996)
Agriculture--products: cotton, grain; livestock
Exports: $689 million (1997 est.)
Exports--commodities: natural gas, cotton, petroleum products, textiles, electricity, carpets
Exports--partners: FSU, Hong Kong, Switzerland, US, Germany, Turkey (1996)
Imports: $1.1 billion (1997 est.)
Imports--commodities: machinery and parts, grain and food, plastics and rubber, consumer durables, textiles
Imports--partners: FSU, US, Turkey, Germany, Cyprus (1996)
Debt--external: $1.7 billion (1998 est.)
Economic aid--recipient: $27.2 million (1995)
Currency: 1 Turkmen manat (TMM) = 100 tenesi
Exchange rates: manats per US$1--5,350 (January 1999), 4,070 (January 1997), 2,400 (January 1996)
Fiscal year: calendar year
Communications
Telephones: NA
Telephone system: poorly developed domestic: NA international: linked by cable and microwave radio relay to other CIS republics and to other countries by leased connections to the Moscow international gateway switch; a new telephone link from Ashgabat to Iran has been established; a new exchange in Ashgabat switches international traffic through Turkey via Intelsat; satellite earth stations--1 Orbita and 1 Intelsat
Radio broadcast stations: 1 state-owned radio broadcast station of NA type
Radios: NA
Television broadcast stations: 3 (much programming relayed from Russia and Turkey) (1997)
Televisions: NA
Transportation
Railways: total: 2,187 km broad gauge: 2,187 km 1.520-m gauge (1996 est.)
Highways: total: 24,000 km paved: 19,488 km (note--these roads are said to be hard-surfaced, meaning that some are paved and some are all-weather gravel surfaced) unpaved: 4,512 km (1996 est.)
Waterways: the Amu Darya is an important inland waterway
Pipelines: crude oil 250 km; natural gas 4,400 km
Ports and harbors: Turkmenbashy
Merchant marine: total: 1 oil tanker (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 1,896 GRT/3,389 DWT (1998 est.)
Airports: 64 (1994 est.)
Airports--with paved runways: total: 22 2,438 to 3,047 m: 13 1,524 to 2,437 m: 8 914 to 1,523 m: 1 (1994 est.)
Airports--with unpaved runways: total: 42 914 to 1,523 m: 7 under 914 m: 35 (1994 est.)
Military
Military branches: Ministry of Defense (Army, Air and Air Defense, Navy, Border Troops, and Internal Troops), National Guard
Military manpower--military age: 18 years of age
Military manpower--availability: males age 15-49: 1,110,606 (1999 est.)
Military manpower--fit for military service: males age 15-49: 901,735 (1999 est.)
Military manpower--reaching military age annually: males: 45,050 (1999 est.)
Military expenditures--dollar figure: $88 million (1998)
Military expenditures--percent of GDP: 3% (1998)
Transnational Issues
Disputes--international: Caspian Sea boundaries are not yet determined among Azerbaijan, Iran, Kazakhstan, Russia, and Turkmenistan
Illicit drugs: limited illicit cultivator of opium poppy, mostly for domestic consumption; limited government eradication program; increasingly used as transshipment point for illicit drugs from Southwest Asia to Russia and Western Europe; also a transshipment point for acetic anhydride destined for Afghanistan
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@Turks and Caicos Islands ------------------------
Geography
Location: Caribbean, two island groups in the North Atlantic Ocean, southeast of The Bahamas
Geographic coordinates: 21 45 N, 71 35 W
Map references: Central America and the Caribbean
Area: total: 430 sq km land: 430 sq km water: 0 sq km
Area--comparative: 2.5 times the size of Washington, DC
Land boundaries: 0 km
Coastline: 389 km
Maritime claims: exclusive fishing zone: 200 nm territorial sea: 12 nm
Climate: tropical; marine; moderated by trade winds; sunny and relatively dry
Terrain: low, flat limestone; extensive marshes and mangrove swamps
Elevation extremes: lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m highest point: Blue Hills 49 m
Natural resources: spiny lobster, conch
Land use: arable land: 2% permanent crops: NA% permanent pastures: NA% forests and woodland: NA% other: 98% (1993 est.)
Irrigated land: NA sq km
Natural hazards: frequent hurricanes
Environment--current issues: limited natural fresh water resources, private cisterns collect rainwater
Environment--international agreements: party to: NA signed, but not ratified: NA
Geography--note: 30 islands (eight inhabited)
People
Population: 16,863 (July 1999 est.)
Age structure: 0-14 years: 32% (male 2,777; female 2,697) 15-64 years: 63% (male 5,619; female 5,085) 65 years and over: 5% (male 305; female 380) (1999 est.)
Population growth rate: 3.65% (1999 est.)
Birth rate: 26.39 births/1,000 population (1999 est.)
Death rate: 4.86 deaths/1,000 population (1999 est.)
Net migration rate: 15 migrant(s)/1,000 population (1999 est.)
Sex ratio: at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.03 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.11 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.8 male(s)/female total population: 1.07 male(s)/female (1999 est.)
Infant mortality rate: 21.11 deaths/1,000 live births (1999 est.)
Life expectancy at birth: total population: 72.35 years male: 70.4 years female: 74.4 years (1999 est.)
Total fertility rate: 3.28 children born/woman (1999 est.)
Nationality: noun: none adjective: none
Ethnic groups: black
Religions: Baptist 41.2%, Methodist 18.9%, Anglican 18.3%, Seventh-Day Adventist 1.7%, other 19.9% (1980)
Languages: English (official)
Literacy: definition: age 15 and over has ever attended school total population: 98% male: 99% female: 98% (1970 est.)
Government
Country name: conventional long form: none conventional short form: Turks and Caicos Islands
Data code: TK
Dependency status: overseas territory of the UK
Government type: NA
Capital: Grand Turk (Cockburn Town)
Administrative divisions: none (overseas territory of the UK)
Independence: none (overseas territory of the UK)
National holiday: Constitution Day, 30 August (1976)
Constitution: introduced 30 August 1976; suspended in 1986; restored and revised 5 March 1988
Legal system: based on laws of England and Wales, with a small number adopted from Jamaica and The Bahamas
Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
Executive branch: chief of state: Queen ELIZABETH II (since 6 February 1953), represented by Governor John KELLY (since NA September 1996) head of government: Chief Minister Derek H. TAYLOR (since 31 January 1995) cabinet: Executive Council consists of three ex officio members and five appointed by the governor from among the members of the Legislative Council elections: none; the monarch is hereditary; governor appointed by the monarch; chief minister appointed by the governor
Legislative branch: unicameral Legislative Council (19 seats, of which 13 are popularly elected; members serve four-year terms) elections: last held 31 January 1995 (next to be held by NA December 1999) election results: percent of vote by party--NA; seats by party--PDM 8, PNP 4, independent (Norman SAUNDERS) 1
Judicial branch: Supreme Court
Political parties and leaders: Progressive National Party or PNP
International organization participation: Caricom (associate), CDB, Interpol (subbureau)
Diplomatic representation in the US: none (overseas territory of the UK)
Diplomatic representation from the US: none (overseas territory of the UK)
Flag description: blue, with the flag of the UK in the upper hoist-side quadrant and the colonial shield centered on the outer half of the flag; the shield is yellow and contains a conch shell, lobster, and cactus
Economy
Economy--overview: The Turks and Caicos economy is based on tourism, fishing, and offshore financial services. Most capital goods and food for domestic consumption are imported. The US was the leading source of tourists in 1996, accounting for more than half of the 87,000 visitors. Major sources of government revenue include fees from offshore financial activities and customs receipts.
GDP: purchasing power parity--$117 million (1997 est.)
GDP--real growth rate: 4% (1997 est.)
GDP--per capita: purchasing power parity?$7,700 (1997 est.)
GDP--composition by sector: agriculture: NA% industry: NA% services: NA%
Population below poverty line: NA%
Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: NA% highest 10%: NA%
Inflation rate (consumer prices): 4% (1995)
Labor force: 4,848 (1990 est.)
Labor force--by occupation: about 33% in government and 20% in agriculture and fishing; significant numbers in tourism and financial and other services (1997 est.)
Unemployment rate: 10% (1997 est.)
Budget: revenues: $47 million expenditures: $33.6 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1997/98 est.)
Industries: tourism, offshore financial services
Industrial production growth rate: NA%
Electricity--production: 5 million kWh (1996)
Electricity--production by source: fossil fuel: 100% hydro: 0% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1996)
Electricity--consumption: 5 million kWh (1996)
Electricity--exports: 0 kWh (1996)
Electricity--imports: 0 kWh (1996)
Agriculture--products: corn, beans, cassava (tapioca), citrus fruits; fish
Exports: $4.7 million (1993)
Exports--commodities: lobster, dried and fresh conch, conch shells
Exports--partners: US, UK
Imports: $46.6 million (1993)
Imports--commodities: food and beverages, tobacco, clothing, manufactures, construction materials
Imports--partners: US, UK
Debt--external: $NA
Economic aid--recipient: $5.7 million (1995)
Currency: 1 United States dollar (US$) = 100 cents
Exchange rates: US currency is used
Fiscal year: calendar year
Communications
Telephones: 1,359 (1988 est.)
Telephone system: fair cable and radiotelephone services domestic: NA international: 2 submarine cables; satellite earth station--1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
Radio broadcast stations: AM 3, FM 0, shortwave 0
Radios: 7,000 (1992 est.)
Television broadcast stations: 0 (broadcasts from The Bahamas are received; cable television is established) (1997)
Televisions: NA
Transportation
Railways: 0 km
Highways: total: 121 km paved: 24 km unpaved: 97 km
Ports and harbors: Grand Turk, Providenciales
Merchant marine: none
Airports: 7 (1998 est.)
Airports--with paved runways: total: 4 1,524 to 2,437 m: 3 914 to 1,523 m: 1 (1998 est.)
Airports--with unpaved runways: total: 3 914 to 1,523 m: 2 under 914 m: 1 (1998 est.)
Military
Military--note: defense is the responsibility of the UK
Transnational Issues
Disputes--international: none
Illicit drugs: transshipment point for South American narcotics destined for the US
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@Tuvalu ------
Geography
Location: Oceania, island group consisting of nine coral atolls in the South Pacific Ocean, about one-half of the way from Hawaii to Australia
Geographic coordinates: 8 00 S, 178 00 E
Map references: Oceania
Area: total: 26 sq km land: 26 sq km water: 0 sq km
Area--comparative: 0.1 times the size of Washington, DC
Land boundaries: 0 km
Coastline: 24 km
Maritime claims: contiguous zone: 24 nm exclusive economic zone: 200 nm territorial sea: 12 nm
Climate: tropical; moderated by easterly trade winds (March to November); westerly gales and heavy rain (November to March)
Terrain: very low-lying and narrow coral atolls
Elevation extremes: lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m highest point: unnamed location 5 m
Natural resources: fish
Land use: arable land: 0% permanent crops: 0% permanent pastures: 0% forests and woodland: 0% other: 100% (1993 est.)
Irrigated land: NA sq km
Natural hazards: severe tropical storms are usually rare, but, in 1997, there were three cyclones
Environment--current issues: since there are no streams or rivers and groundwater is not potable, all water needs must be met by catchment systems with storage facilities; beachhead erosion because of the use of sand for building materials; excessive clearance of forest undergrowth for use as fuel; damage to coral reefs from the spread of the Crown of Thorns starfish; Tuvalu is very concerned about global increases in greenhouse gas emissions and their effect on rising sea levels, which threaten the country's underground water table
Environment--international agreements: party to: Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution signed, but not ratified: Biodiversity, Law of the Sea
People
Population: 10,588 (July 1999 est.)
Age structure: 0-14 years: 35% (male 1,870; female 1,799) 15-64 years: 61% (male 3,062; female 3,360) 65 years and over: 4% (male 225; female 272) (1999 est.)
Population growth rate: 1.34% (1999 est.)
Birth rate: 21.91 births/1,000 population (1999 est.)
Death rate: 8.5 deaths/1,000 population (1999 est.)
Net migration rate: 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (1999 est.)
Sex ratio: at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.91 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.83 male(s)/female total population: 0.95 male(s)/female (1999 est.)
Infant mortality rate: 25.53 deaths/1,000 live births (1999 est.)
Life expectancy at birth: total population: 64.15 years male: 63.01 years female: 65.34 years (1999 est.)
Total fertility rate: 3.11 children born/woman (1999 est.)
Nationality: noun: Tuvaluan(s) adjective: Tuvaluan
Ethnic groups: Polynesian 96%
Religions: Church of Tuvalu (Congregationalist) 97%, Seventh-Day Adventist 1.4%, Baha'i 1%, other 0.6%
Languages: Tuvaluan, English
Literacy: NA; note--education is free and compulsory from ages 6 through 13
Government
Country name: conventional long form: none conventional short form: Tuvalu former: Ellice Islands
Data code: TV
Government type: constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary democracy; began debating republic status in 1992
Capital: Funafuti
Administrative divisions: none
Independence: 1 October 1978 (from UK)