Chapter 11
Economy--overview: Australia has a prosperous Western-style capitalist economy, with a per capita GDP at the level of the four dominant West European economies. Rich in natural resources, Australia is a major exporter of agricultural products, minerals, metals, and fossil fuels. Commodities account for 57% of the value of total exports, so that a downturn in world commodity prices can have a big impact on the economy. The government is pushing for increased exports of manufactured goods, but competition in international markets continues to be severe. Australia has suffered from the low growth and high unemployment characterizing the OECD countries in the early 1990s, but the economy has expanded at reasonably steady rates in recent years. Canberra's emphasis on reforms is a key factor behind the economy's resilience to the regional crisis and its stronger than expected growth rate that reached 4.5% last year. After a slow start in 1998, exports rebounded in the second half of the year because of a sharp currency depreciation and a redirection of sales to Europe, North America, and Latin America.
GDP: purchasing power parity--$393.9 billion (1998 est.)
GDP--real growth rate: 4.5% (1998 est.)
GDP--per capita: purchasing power parity?$21,200 (1998 est.)
GDP--composition by sector: agriculture: 4% industry: 31% services: 65% (1997 est.)
Population below poverty line: NA%
Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: 2.5% highest 10%: 24.8% (1989)
Inflation rate (consumer prices): 1% (1998)
Labor force: 9.2 million (December 1997)
Labor force--by occupation: services 73%, industry 22%, agriculture 5% (1997 est.)
Unemployment rate: 8.1% (1998)
Budget: revenues: $90.73 billion expenditures: $89.04 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (FY98/99 est.)
Industries: mining, industrial and transportation equipment, food processing, chemicals, steel
Industrial production growth rate: 1.2% (1995)
Electricity--production: 166.683 billion kWh (1996)
Electricity--production by source: fossil fuel: 91.14% hydro: 8.84% nuclear: 0% other: 0.02% (1996)
Electricity--consumption: 166.683 billion kWh (1996)
Electricity--exports: 0 kWh (1996)
Electricity--imports: 0 kWh (1996)
Agriculture--products: wheat, barley, sugarcane, fruits; cattle, sheep, poultry
Exports: $56 billion (f.o.b., 1998 est.)
Exports--commodities: coal, gold, meat, wool, alumina, iron ore, wheat, machinery and transport equipment
Exports--partners: Japan 20%, ASEAN 16%, EU 10%, South Korea 9%, US 9%, NZ 8%, Taiwan, Hong Kong, China (1997)
Imports: $61 billion (f.o.b., 1998 est.)
Imports--commodities: machinery and transport equipment, computers and office machines, telecommunication equipment and parts; crude oil and petroleum products
Imports--partners: EU 25%, US 23%, Japan 13%, China, NZ (1997)
Debt--external: $156 billion (June 1997)
Economic aid--donor: ODA, $1.43 billion (FY97/98)
Currency: 1 Australian dollar ($A) = 100 cents
Exchange rates: Australian dollars ($A) per US$1--1.56 (February 1999), 1.5888 (1998), 1.3439 (1997), 1.2773 (1996), 1.3486 (1995), 1.3668 (1994)
Fiscal year: 1 July--30 June
Communications
Telephones: 8.7 million (1987 est.)
Telephone system: excellent domestic and international service domestic: domestic satellite system international: submarine cables to New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, and Indonesia; satellite earth stations--10 Intelsat (4 Indian Ocean and 6 Pacific Ocean), 2 Inmarsat (Indian and Pacific Ocean Regions)
Radio broadcast stations: AM 262, FM 345, shortwave 1 (Australia's only shortwave station, Radio Australia, broadcasts to the world in seven languages, using 23 frequencies) (1998)
Radios: NA
Television broadcast stations: 104 (64 of these stations are government-owned and 40 are commercial) (1997)
Televisions: 9.2 million (1992 est.)
Transportation
Railways: total: 38,563 km (2,914 km electrified) broad gauge: 6,083 km 1.600-m gauge standard gauge: 16,752 km 1.435-m gauge narrow gauge: 15,728 km 1.067-m gauge dual gauge: 172 km NA gauges
Highways: total: 913,000 km paved: 353,331 km (including 13,630 km of expressways) unpaved: 559,669 km (1996 est.)
Waterways: 8,368 km; mainly by small, shallow-draft craft
Pipelines: crude oil 2,500 km; petroleum products 500 km; natural gas 5,600 km
Ports and harbors: Adelaide, Brisbane, Cairns, Darwin, Devonport (Tasmania), Fremantle, Geelong, Hobart (Tasmania), Launceston (Tasmania), Mackay, Melbourne, Sydney, Townsville
Merchant marine: total: 57 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 1,767,387 GRT/2,426,710 DWT ships by type: bulk 29, cargo 3, chemical tanker 4, container 4, liquefied gas tanker 4, oil tanker 8, passenger 1, roll-on/roll-off cargo 4 (1998 est.)
Airports: 408 (1998 est.)
Airports--with paved runways: total: 262 over 3,047 m: 11 2,438 to 3,047 m: 11 1,524 to 2,437 m: 112 914 to 1,523 m: 120 under 914 m: 8 (1998 est.)
Airports--with unpaved runways: total: 146 1,524 to 2,437 m: 19 914 to 1,523 m: 114 under 914 m: 13 (1998 est.)
Military
Military branches: Australian Army, Royal Australian Navy, Royal Australian Air Force
Military manpower--military age: 17 years of age
Military manpower--availability: males age 15-49: 4,882,693 (1999 est.)
Military manpower--fit for military service: males age 15-49: 4,212,272 (1999 est.)
Military manpower--reaching military age annually: males: 130,570 (1999 est.)
Military expenditures--dollar figure: $6.9 billion (FY97/98)
Military expenditures--percent of GDP: 1.9% (FY97/98)
Transnational Issues
Disputes--international: territorial claim in Antarctica (Australian Antarctic Territory)
Illicit drugs: Tasmania is one of the world's major suppliers of licit opiate products; government maintains strict controls over areas of opium poppy cultivation and output of poppy straw concentrate
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@Austria -------
Introduction
Background: Once the center of power for the large Austro-Hungarian empire, Austria was reduced to a small republic after its defeat in World War I. After the annexation to Nazi Germany in 1938 and subsequent occupation by the victorious Allied powers, Austria's 1955 State Treaty declared the country "permanently neutral" as a condition of the Soviet military withdrawal. The Soviet collapse relieved the external pressure to remain unaligned, but neutrality had evolved into a part of Austrian cultural identity, which has led to an ongoing public debate over whether Vienna legitimately can remain outside of European security structures. A wealthy country, Austria joined the European Union in 1995 and, like many EU members, is adjusting to the new European currency and struggling with high unemployment.
Geography
Location: Central Europe, north of Italy and Slovenia
Geographic coordinates: 47 20 N, 13 20 E
Map references: Europe
Area: total: 83,858 sq km land: 82,738 sq km water: 1,120 sq km
Area--comparative: slightly smaller than Maine
Land boundaries: total: 2,562 km border countries: Czech Republic 362 km, Germany 784 km, Hungary 366 km, Italy 430 km, Liechtenstein 35 km, Slovakia 91 km, Slovenia 330 km, Switzerland 164 km
Coastline: 0 km (landlocked)
Maritime claims: none (landlocked)
Climate: temperate; continental, cloudy; cold winters with frequent rain in lowlands and snow in mountains; cool summers with occasional showers
Terrain: in the west and south mostly mountains (Alps); along the eastern and northern margins mostly flat or gently sloping
Elevation extremes: lowest point: Neusiedler See 115 m highest point: Grossglockner 3,797 m
Natural resources: iron ore, oil, timber, magnesite, lead, coal, lignite, copper, hydropower
Land use: arable land: 17% permanent crops: 1% permanent pastures: 23% forests and woodland: 39% other: 20% (1996 est.)
Irrigated land: 40 sq km (1993 est.)
Natural hazards: NA
Environment--current issues: some forest degradation caused by air and soil pollution; soil pollution results from the use of agricultural chemicals; air pollution results from emissions by coal- and oil-fired power stations and industrial plants and from trucks transiting Austria between northern and southern Europe
Environment--international agreements: party to: Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling signed, but not ratified: Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol
Geography--note: landlocked; strategic location at the crossroads of central Europe with many easily traversable Alpine passes and valleys; major river is the Danube; population is concentrated on eastern lowlands because of steep slopes, poor soils, and low temperatures elsewhere
People
Population: 8,139,299 (July 1999 est.)
Age structure: 0-14 years: 17% (male 702,261; female 666,310) 15-64 years: 68% (male 2,792,484; female 2,713,397) 65 years and over: 15% (male 478,071; female 786,776) (1999 est.)
Population growth rate: 0.09% (1999 est.)
Birth rate: 9.62 births/1,000 population (1999 est.)
Death rate: 10.04 deaths/1,000 population (1999 est.)
Net migration rate: 1.32 migrant(s)/1,000 population (1999 est.)
Sex ratio: at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.05 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.03 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.61 male(s)/female total population: 0.95 male(s)/female (1999 est.)
Infant mortality rate: 5.1 deaths/1,000 live births (1999 est.)
Life expectancy at birth: total population: 77.48 years male: 74.31 years female: 80.82 years (1999 est.)
Total fertility rate: 1.37 children born/woman (1999 est.)
Nationality: noun: Austrian(s) adjective: Austrian
Ethnic groups: German 99.4%, Croatian 0.3%, Slovene 0.2%, other 0.1%
Religions: Roman Catholic 78%, Protestant 5%, other 17%
Languages: German
Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 99% (1974 est.) male: NA% female: NA%
Government
Country name: conventional long form: Republic of Austria conventional short form: Austria local long form: Republik Oesterreich local short form: Oesterreich
Data code: AU
Government type: federal republic
Capital: Vienna
Administrative divisions: 9 states (bundeslaender, singular--bundesland); Burgenland, Kaernten, Niederoesterreich, Oberoesterreich, Salzburg, Steiermark, Tirol, Vorarlberg, Wien
Independence: 1156 (from Bavaria)
National holiday: National Day, 26 October (1955)
Constitution: 1920; revised 1929 (reinstated 1 May 1945)
Legal system: civil law system with Roman law origin; judicial review of legislative acts by the Constitutional Court; separate administrative and civil/penal supreme courts; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal; compulsory for presidential elections
Executive branch: chief of state: President Thomas KLESTIL (since 8 July 1992) head of government: Chancellor Viktor KLIMA (since 28 January 1997); Vice Chancellor Wolfgang SCHUESSEL (since 22 April 1995) cabinet: Council of Ministers chosen by the president on the advice of the chancellor elections: president elected by popular vote for a six-year term; presidential election last held 19 April 1998 (next to be held in the spring of 2004); chancellor chosen by the president from the majority party in the National Council; vice chancellor chosen by the president on the advice of the chancellor election results: Thomas KLESTIL reelected president; percent of vote--Thomas KLESTIL 63%, Gertraud KNOLL 14%, Heide SCHMIDT 11%, Richard LUGNER 10%, Karl NOWAK 2%
Legislative branch: bicameral Federal Assembly or Bundesversammlung consists of Federal Council or Bundesrat (64 members; members represent each of the states on the basis of population, but with each state having at least three representatives; members serve a four- or six-year term) and the National Council or Nationalrat (183 seats; members elected by direct popular vote to serve four-year terms) elections: National Council--last held 17 December 1995 (next to be held in the fall of 1999) election results: National Council--percent of vote by party--SPOe 38.3%, OeVP 28.3%, FPOe 22.1%, LF 5.3%, Greens 4.6%, other 1.4%; seats by party--SPOe 71, OeVP 53, FPOe 40, LF 10, Greens 9
Judicial branch: Supreme Judicial Court or Oberster Gerichtshof; Administrative Court or Verwaltungsgerichtshof; Constitutional Court or Verfassungsgerichtshof
Political parties and leaders: Social Democratic Party of Austria caucus floor leader and Alexander VAN DER BELLEN, party spokesman];
Political pressure groups and leaders: Federal Chamber of Trade and Commerce; Austrian Trade Union Federation (primarily Socialist) or OeGB; three composite leagues of the Austrian People's Party or OeVP representing business, labor, and farmers; OeVP-oriented League of Austrian Industrialists or VOeI; Roman Catholic Church, including its chief lay organization, Catholic Action
International organization participation: AfDB, AsDB, Australia Group, BIS, BSEC (observer), CCC, CE, CEI, CERN, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, EIB, EMU, ESA, EU, FAO, G- 9, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IEA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, MINURSO, MTCR, NAM (guest), NEA, NSG, OAS (observer), OECD, OPCW, OSCE, PCA, PFP, UN, UNCTAD, UNDOF, UNESCO, UNFICYP, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNIKOM, UNITAR, UNMIBH, UNMOT, UNOMIG, UNTSO, UNU, UPU, WCL, WEU (observer), WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO, ZC
Diplomatic representation in the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Helmut TUERK chancery: 3524 International Court NW, Washington, DC 20008-3035 consulate(s) general: Chicago, Los Angeles, and New York
Diplomatic representation from the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Kathryn Walt HALL embassy: Boltzmanngasse 16, A-1091, Vienna mailing address: use embassy street address
Flag description: three equal horizontal bands of red (top), white, and red
Economy
Economy--overview: Austria has a well-developed market economy with a high standard of living. As a member of the European Monetary Union (EMU), Austria's economy is closely integrated with other EU member countries, especially with Germany. Austria's membership in the EU has drawn an influx of foreign investors attracted by Austria's access to the single European market. Through privatization efforts, the 1996-98 budget consolidation programs, and austerity measures, Austria brought its total public sector deficit down to 2.5% of GDP in 1997 and public debt--at 66% of GDP in 1997--more or less in line with the 60% of GDP required by the EU's Maastricht criteria. Cuts mainly affect the civil service and Austria's generous social system, the two major causes of the government deficit. To meet increased competition from both EU and Central European countries, Austria will need to emphasize knowledge-based sectors of the economy and deregulate the service sector, particularly telecommunications and energy. The strong GDP growth of 1998 is expected to dwindle back to 2.3% in 1999, and observers caution that this projection may be revised downwards in view of the Asian and Brazilian crises and Germany's lower growth projection.
GDP: purchasing power parity--$184.5 billion (1998 est.)
GDP--real growth rate: 2.9% (1998 est.)
GDP--per capita: purchasing power parity?$22,700 (1998 est.)
GDP--composition by sector: agriculture: 1.4% industry: 30.8% services: 67.8% (1997 est.)
Population below poverty line: NA%
Inflation rate (consumer prices): 0.9% (1998)
Labor force: 3.7 million (1998)
Labor force--by occupation: services 67.7%, industry and crafts 29%, agriculture and forestry 0.7% (salaried employees, 1997 est.)
Unemployment rate: 7% (1999 est.)
Budget: revenues: $50.4 billion expenditures: $55.9 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1998 est.)
Industries: construction, machinery, vehicles and parts, food, chemicals, lumber and wood processing, paper and paperboard, communications equipment, tourism (1997)
Industrial production growth rate: 4% (1998 est.)
Electricity--production: 52.15 billion kWh (1996)
Electricity--production by source: fossil fuel: 34.4% hydro: 65.6% nuclear: 0% other: 0% (1997)
Electricity--consumption: 56.1 billion kWh (1997)
Electricity--exports: 9.8 billion kWh (1997)
Electricity--imports: 9 billion kWh (1997)
Agriculture--products: grains, potatoes, sugar beets, wine, fruit; dairy products, cattle, pigs, poultry; lumber
Exports: $62.5 billion (1998)
Exports--commodities: vehicles, machinery and equipment, paper and paperboard, metal goods, iron and steel, telecommunication equipment, textiles, medical and pharmaceutical products (1997)
Exports--partners: EU 62% (Germany 35.1%, Italy 8.3%), Central and Eastern Europe 17.6% (Hungary 4.9%), Japan 1.3%, US 3.7% (1997)
Imports: $65.8 billion (1998)
Imports--commodities: vehicles, machinery and equipment, apparel, metal goods, oil and oil products, office and data-processing machinery, medical and pharmaceutical products, telecommunication equipment, textiles (1997)
Imports--partners: EU 68.9% (Germany 41.7%, Italy 8%), Central and Eastern Europe 11% (Hungary 3.1%), Asia 7.1% (Japan 2.2%), US 5.4% (1997)
Debt--external: $24.33 billion (1997)
Economic aid--donor: ODA, $513 million (1997); of which, bilateral $298 million, multilateral $215 million
Currency: 1 Austrian schilling (AS) = 100 groschen
Exchange rates: Austrian schillings (AS) per US$1--11.86 (January 1999), 12.379 (1998), 12.204 (1997), 10.587 (1996), 10.081 (1995), 11.422 (1994) note: on 9 January 1999, the European Union introduced a common currency that is now being used by financial institutions in some member countries at the rate of 0.8597 euros per US$ and a fixed rate of 13.7603 Austrian shillings per euro; the euro will replace the local currency in consenting countries for all transactions in 2002
Fiscal year: calendar year
Communications
Telephones: 3.47 million (1986 est.)
Telephone system: domestic: highly developed and efficient international: satellite earth stations--2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean) and 2 Eutelsat
Radio broadcast stations: AM 1, FM 61 (several hundred repeaters), shortwave 1 (Austria's single shortwave station, Radio Austria International, transmits its programs to the world in six languages using 12 frequencies and six communication satellite relays) (1998)
Radios: 70% of all households had radiosaccoding to the 1993 census
Television broadcast stations: 51 (in addition, there are 920 repeaters) (1998)
Televisions: 2,418,584 (1984 est.)
Transportation
Railways: total: 5,849 km (there is also 594 km of private tracks) standard gauge: 5,470 km 1.435-m gauge (3,418 km electrified) narrow gauge: 379 km 1.000-m and 0.760-m gauge (84 km electrified) (1997)
Highways: 129,061 km paved: 129,061 km (including 1,613 km of expressways) unpaved: 0 km (1997 est.)
Waterways: 358 km (1997)
Pipelines: crude oil 777 km; natural gas 840 km (1997)
Ports and harbors: Linz, Vienna, Enns, Krems
Merchant marine: total: 22 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 67,066 GRT/95,693 DWT ships by type: bulk 1, cargo 18, combination bulk 2, container 1 (1998 est.)
Airports: 55 (1998 est.)
Airports--with paved runways: total: 22 over 3,047 m: 1 2,438 to 3,047 m: 5 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 914 to 1,523 m: 3 under 914 m: 12 (1998 est.)
Airports--with unpaved runways: total: 33 914 to 1,523 m: 4 under 914 m: 29 (1998 est.)
Heliports: 1 (1998 est.)
Military
Military branches: Army (includes Flying Division)
Military manpower--military age: 19 years of age
Military manpower--availability: males age 15-49: 2,091,902 (1999 est.)
Military manpower--fit for military service: males age 15-49: 1,735,469 (1999 est.)
Military manpower--reaching military age annually: males: 48,872 (1999 est.)
Military expenditures--dollar figure: $1.8 billion (1999 est.)
Military expenditures--percent of GDP: 0.82% (1999 est.)
Transnational Issues
Disputes--international: none
Illicit drugs: transshipment point for Southwest Asian heroin and South American cocaine destined for Western Europe
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@Azerbaijan ----------
Introduction
Background: In 1806, Azerbaijan, a region of Turkic Muslim people, was conquered by the Russians. In 1918, Azerbaijan declared independence from Russia, but was incorporated into the Soviet Union in 1920. It again declared its independence in 1991, following the collapse of the USSR. The conflict between Azerbaijan and Armenia over the Nagorno-Karabakh region is still unresolved after 10 years and Baku has yet to settle disputes with its neighbors over oil rights in the Caspian Sea. During the war, Karabakh Armenians declared independence and seized almost 20% of the country's territory, creating some 750,000 Azerbaijani refugees in the process. Both sides have generally observed a Russian-mediated cease-fire in place since May 1994.
Geography
Location: Southwestern Asia, bordering the Caspian Sea, between Iran and Russia
Geographic coordinates: 40 30 N, 47 30 E
Map references: Commonwealth of Independent States
Area: total: 86,600 sq km land: 86,100 sq km water: 500 sq km note: includes the exclave of Naxcivan Autonomous Republic and the Nagorno-Karabakh region; the region's autonomy was abolished by Azerbaijani Supreme Soviet on 26 November 1991
Area--comparative: slightly smaller than Maine
Land boundaries: total: 2,013 km border countries: Armenia (with Azerbaijan-proper) 566 km, Armenia (with Azerbaijan-Naxcivan exclave) 221 km, Georgia 322 km, Iran (with Azerbaijan-proper) 432 km, Iran (with Azerbaijan-Naxcivan exclave) 179 km, Russia 284 km, Turkey 9 km
Coastline: 0 km (landlocked) note: Azerbaijan borders the Caspian Sea (800 km, est.)
Maritime claims: none (landlocked)
Climate: dry, semiarid steppe
Terrain: large, flat Kur-Araz Ovaligi (Kura-Araks Lowland) (much of it below sea level) with Great Caucasus Mountains to the north, Qarabag Yaylasi (Karabakh Upland) in west; Baku lies on Abseron Yasaqligi (Apsheron Peninsula) that juts into Caspian Sea
Elevation extremes: lowest point: Caspian Sea -28 m highest point: Bazarduzu Dagi 4,485 m
Natural resources: petroleum, natural gas, iron ore, nonferrous metals, alumina
Land use: arable land: 18% permanent crops: 5% permanent pastures: 25% forests and woodland: 11% other: 41% (1993 est.)
Irrigated land: 10,000 sq km (1993 est.)
Natural hazards: droughts; some lowland areas threatened by rising levels of the Caspian Sea
Environment--current issues: local scientists consider the Abseron Yasaqligi (Apsheron Peninsula) (including Baku and Sumqayit) and the Caspian Sea to be the ecologically most devastated area in the world because of severe air, water, and soil pollution; soil pollution results from the use of DDT as a pesticide and also from toxic defoliants used in the production of cotton