Chapter 94
Political parties and leaders: Rally for the Republic or RPR [Andre' Maurice PIHOUEE]; Union for French Democracy or UDF [Ibrahim DINDAN]; Communist Party of Reunion or PCR [Paul VERGES]; France-Reunion Future or FRA [Andre THIEN AH KOON]; Socialist Party or PS [Jean-Claude FRUTEAU]; Social Democrats or CDS; Union for France or UPF (includes RPR and UDF); Free-DOM Movement [Marguerite SUDRE]; National Front (FN), Alix MOREL
International organization participation: FZ, WFTU
Diplomatic representation in the US: none (overseas department of France)
Diplomatic representation from the US: none (overseas department of France)
Flag description: the flag of France is used
Economy
Economy - overview: The economy has traditionally been based on agriculture. Sugarcane has been the primary crop for more than a century, and in some years it accounts for 85% of exports. The government has been pushing the development of a tourist industry to relieve high unemployment, which recently amounted to one-third of the labor force. The gap in Reunion between the well-off and the poor is extraordinary and accounts for the persistent social tensions. The white and Indian communities are substantially better off than other segments of the population, often approaching European standards, whereas indigenous groups suffer the poverty and unemployment typical of the poorer nations of the African continent. The outbreak of severe rioting in February 1991 illustrates the seriousness of socioeconomic tensions. The economic well-being of Reunion depends heavily on continued financial assistance from France.
GDP: purchasing power parity - $2.9 billion (1995 est.)
GDP - real growth rate: 2.7% (1995 est.)
GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $4,300 (1995 est.)
GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: NA% industry : NA% services: NA%
Inflation rate - consumer price index: NA%
Labor force: total: 242,169 (1993) by occupation: agriculture 30%, industry 21%, services 49% (1981)
Unemployment rate: 35% (1994)
Budget: revenues: $NA expenditures: $NA
Industries: sugar, rum, cigarettes, handicraft items
Industrial production growth rate: NA%
Electricity - capacity: NA kW
Electricity - production: 1.09 billion kWh (1994)
Electricity - consumption per capita: 1,670 kWh (1994)
Agriculture - products: sugarcane, vanilla, tobacco, tropical fruits, vegetables, corn
Exports: total value: $171.776 million (f.o.b., 1994) commodities: sugar 63%, rum and molasses 4%, perfume essences 2%, lobster 3%, (1993) partners: France, Mauritius, Bahrain, South Africa, Italy, Madagascar
Imports: total value: $2.354 billion (c.i.f., 1994) commodities : manufactured goods, food, beverages, tobacco, machinery and transportation equipment, raw materials, and petroleum products partners: France, Mauritius, Bahrain, South Africa, Italy, Madagascar
Debt - external: $NA
Economic aid: recipient: substantial annual subsidies from France
Currency: 1 French franc (F) = 100 centimes
Exchange rates: French francs (F) per US$1 - 5.4169 (January 1997), 5.1155 (1996), 4.9915 (1995), 5.5520 (1994), 5.6632 (1993), 5.2938 (1992)
Fiscal year: calendar year
@Reunion:Communications
Telephones: 191,647 (1993 est.)
Telephone system: adequate system; principal center is Saint-Denis domestic : modern open wire and microwave radio relay network international: radiotelephone communication to Comoros, France, Madagascar; new microwave route to Mauritius; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Indian Ocean)
Radio broadcast stations: AM 3, FM 13, shortwave 0
Radios: 151,000 (1992 est.)
Television broadcast stations: 1 (repeaters 18)
Televisions: 116,181 (1992 est.)
@Reunion:Transportation
Railways: 0 km
Highways: total: 2,784 km paved: 2,187 km unpaved: 597 km (1987 est.)
Ports and harbors: Le Port, Pointe des Galets
Merchant marine: none
Airports: 2 (1996)
Airports - with paved runways: total: 2 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1 914 to 1,523 m: 1 (1996 est.)
Military
Military branches: French forces (Army, Navy, Air Force, and Gendarmerie)
Military manpower - military age: 18 years of age
Military manpower - availability: males age 15-49: 176,600 (1997 est.)
Military manpower - fit for military service: males : 92,170 (1997 est.)
Military manpower - reaching military age annually: males: 5,724 (1997 est.)
Military - note: defense is the responsibility of France
Transnational Issues
Disputes - international: none ______________________________________________________________________
ROMANIA
@Romania:Geography
Location: Southeastern Europe, bordering the Black Sea, between Bulgaria and Ukraine
Geographic coordinates: 46 00 N, 25 00 E
Map references: Europe
Area: total: 237,500 sq km land: 230,340 sq km water : 7,160 sq km
Area - comparative: slightly smaller than Oregon
Land boundaries: total : 2,508 km border countries: Bulgaria 608 km, Hungary 443 km, Moldova 450 km, Serbia and Montenegro 476 km (all with Serbia), Ukraine (north) 362 km, Ukraine (south) 169 km
Coastline: 225 km
Maritime claims: contiguous zone : 24 nm continental shelf: 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation exclusive economic zone: 200 nm territorial sea: 12 nm
Climate: temperate; cold, cloudy winters with frequent snow and fog; sunny summers with frequent showers and thunderstorms
Terrain: central Transylvanian Basin is separated from the Plain of Moldavia on the east by the Carpathian Mountains and separated from the Walachian Plain on the south by the Transylvanian Alps
Elevation extremes: lowest point: Black Sea 0 m highest point : Moldoveanu 2,544 m
Natural resources: petroleum (reserves declining), timber, natural gas, coal, iron ore, salt
Land use: arable land: 41% permanent crops: 3% permanent pastures : 21% forests and woodland: 29% other: 6% (1993 est.)
Irrigated land: 31,020 sq km (1993 est.)
Natural hazards: earthquakes most severe in south and southwest; geologic structure and climate promote landslides
Environment - current issues: soil erosion and degradation; water pollution; air pollution in south from industrial effluents; contamination of Danube delta wetlands
Environment - international agreements: party to : Air Pollution, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: Antarctic-Environmental Protocol
Geography - note: controls most easily traversable land route between the Balkans, Moldova, and Ukraine
@Romania:People
Population: 22,463,077 (July 1997 est.)
Age structure: 0-14 years: 19% (male 2,223,136; female 2,130,497) 15-64 years : 68% (male 7,586,237; female 7,679,992) 65 years and over: 13% (male 1,186,948; female 1,656,267) (July 1997 est.)
Population growth rate: -0.28% (1997 est.)
Birth rate: 9.8 births/1,000 population (1997 est.)
Death rate: 11.75 deaths/1,000 population (1997 est.)
Net migration rate: -0.88 migrant(s)/1,000 population (1997 est.)
Sex ratio: at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female 15-64 years : 0.99 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.72 male(s)/female total population: 0.96 male(s)/female (1997 est.)
Infant mortality rate: 19.6 deaths/1,000 live births (1997 est.)
Life expectancy at birth: total population: 70.11 years male : 66.28 years female: 74.13 years (1997 est.)
Total fertility rate: 1.23 children born/woman (1997 est.)
Nationality: noun: Romanian(s) adjective: Romanian
Ethnic groups: Romanian 89.1%, Hungarian 8.9%, German 0.4%, Ukrainian, Serb, Croat, Russian, Turk, and Gypsy 1.6%
Religions: Romanian Orthodox 70%, Roman Catholic 6% (of which 3% are Uniate), Protestant 6%, unaffiliated 18%
Languages: Romanian, Hungarian, German
Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 97% male : 98% female: 95% (1992 est.)
@Romania:Government
Country name: conventional long form: none conventional short form : Romania local long form: none local short form: Romania
Data code: RO
Government type: republic
National capital: Bucharest
Administrative divisions: 40 counties (judete, singular - judet) and 1 municipality* (municipiu); Alba, Arad, Arges, Bacau, Bihor, Bistrita-Nasaud, Botosani, Braila, Brasov, Bucuresti*, Buzau, Calarasi, Caras-Severin, Cluj, Constanta, Covasna, Dimbovita, Dolj, Galati, Gorj, Giurgiu, Harghita, Hunedoara, Ialomita, Iasi, Maramures, Mehedinti, Mures, Neamt, Olt, Prahova, Salaj, Satu Mare, Sibiu, Suceava, Teleorman, Timis, Tulcea, Vaslui, Vilcea, Vrancea
Independence: 1881 (from Turkey; republic proclaimed 30 December 1947)
National holiday: National Day of Romania, 1 December (1990)
Constitution: 8 December 1991
Legal system: former mixture of civil law system and communist legal theory; is now based on the Constitution of France's Fifth Republic
Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
Executive branch: chief of state : President Emil CONSTANTINESCU (since 29 November 1996) head of government: Prime Minister Victor CIORBEA (since 12 December 1996) cabinet: Council of Ministers appointed by the prime minister elections: president elected by popular vote for a four-year term; election last held 3 November 1996, with runoff between the top two candidates held 17 November 1996 (next to be held NA 2000); prime minister appointed by the president election results: percent of vote - Emil CONSTANTINESCU 54.4%, Ion ILIESCU 45.6%
Legislative branch: bicameral Parliament or Parlament consists of the Senate or Senat (143 seats; members are elected by direct popular vote on a proportional representation to serve four-year terms) and the Chamber of Deputies or Adunarea Deputatilor (343 seats; members are elected by direct popular vote on a proportional representation to serve four-year terms) elections: Senate - last held 3 November 1996 (next to be held NA 2000); Chamber of Deputies - last held 3 November 1996 (next to be held NA 2000) election results: Senate - percent of vote by party - CDR 30.7%, PDSR 23.1%, USD 13.2%, UDMR 6.8%, PRM 4.5%, PUNR 4.2%, others 17.5%; seats by party - CDR 53, PDSR 41, USD 23, UDMR 11, PRM 8, PUNR 7; Chamber of Deputies - percent of vote by party - CDR 30.2%, PDSR 21.5%, USD 12.9%, UDMR 6.6% PRM 4.5%, PUNR 4.4%, others 19.9%; seats by party - CDR 122, PDSR 91, USD 53, UDMR 25, PRM 19, PUNR 18, ethnic minorities 15
Judicial branch: Supreme Court of Justice, judges are appointed by the president on recommendation of the Superior Council of Magistrates
Political parties and leaders: Democratic Party or DP [Petre ROMAN]; Romanian Social Democratic Party or PSDR [Sergiu CUNESCU]; Party of Social Democracy in Romania or PDSR [Adrian NASTASE]; Democratic Union of Hungarians in Romania or UDMR [Bela MARKO]; National Liberal Party or PNL [Mircea IONESCU-QUINTUS]; National Peasants' Christian and Democratic Party or PNTCD [Ion DIACONESCU]; Romanian National Unity Party or PUNR [Valeriu TABARA]; Socialist Labor Party or PSM [Ilie VERDET]; Agrarian Democratic Party of Romania or PDAR [Victor SURDU]; The Democratic Convention or CDR [Ion DIACONESCU]; Romania Mare Party (Greater Romanian Party) or PRM [Corneliu Vadim TUDOR]; Civic Alliance Party or PAC [Nicolae MANOLESCU, chairman]; Liberal Party '93 or PL-93 [Dinu PATRICIU]; National Liberal Party-Democratic Convention or PNL-CD [Nicolae CERVENI]; Socialist Party or PS [Tudor MOHORA] note: to increase their voting strength several of the above-mentioned parties united under umbrella organizations: PNTCD, PNL, and PNL-CD form the bulk of the Democratic Convention or CDR [Ion DIACONESCU]; PD and PSDR form the Union of Social Democrats or USD [Petre ROMAN]; and PAC and PL-93 form the National Liberal Alliance or ANL [Nicolae MANOLESCU]; PSM, PS, ANL, and numerous other small parties failed to gain representation in the most recent election
Political pressure groups and leaders: various human rights and professional associations
International organization participation: ACCT, BIS, BSEC, CCC, CE, CEI, EBRD, ECE, EU (applicant), FAO, G- 9, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO, ITU, NACC, NAM (guest), NSG, OAS (observer), OSCE, PCA, PFP, UN, UNAVEM III, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNIKOM, UPU, WCL, WEU (associate partner), WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO, ZC
Diplomatic representation in the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Mircea Dan GEOANA chancery: 1607 23rd Street NW, Washington, DC 20008 telephone: [1] (202) 332-4846, 4848, 4851 FAX : [1] (202) 232-4748 consulate(s) general: Los Angeles and New York
Diplomatic representation from the US: chief of mission : Ambassador Alfred H. MOSES embassy: Strada Tudor Arghezi 7-9, Bucharest mailing address: American Consulate General (Bucharest), Unit 1315, APO AE 09213-1315 telephone: [40] (1) 210 01 49, 210 40 42 FAX: [40] (1) 210 03 95 branch office: Cluj-Napoca
Flag description: three equal vertical bands of blue (hoist side), yellow, and red; the national coat of arms that used to be centered in the yellow band has been removed; now similar to the flags of Andorra and Chad
Economy
Economy - overview: Romania, one of the poorer countries in Central and Eastern Europe, began the transition from Communism with a largely obsolete industrial base and a pattern of output unsuited to the country's needs. Over the past seven years, economic restructuring has lagged behind most other countries in the region. Consequently, economic performance is declining, with slowing GDP growth, ballooning budget deficits, accelerating inflation, a plunging exchange rate, and anemic foreign investment. Unemployment was low at about 6% at the end of 1996, but the rate will rise when restructuring gets underway. A new government elected in November 1996 promises to accelerate economic reform, restructuring, and privatization, introduce fiscal and monetary austerity, reduce the state's role in the economy, and open Romania to foreign investment. The government will tackle its formidable economic problems in two stages, with an emergency plan over the winter of 1996/97 to ensure social and political stability, followed by a radical structural reform program over its remaining three-and-one-half years aimed eventually at EU accession. At the same time, it wants to keep campaign promises to increase benefits to disadvantaged groups. Bucharest hopes to receive financial and technical assistance from international financial institutions and western governments and negotiations over a new IMF standby agreement are underway. If reform stalls, however, Romania's bond rating - just below investment grade - could fall and needed capital from both public and private sources could quickly dry up. Rich agricultural and oil resources are strengths for the future.
GDP: purchasing power parity - $113.2 billion (1996 est.)
GDP - real growth rate: 4.1% (1996 est.)
GDP - per capita: purchasing power parity - $5,200 (1996 est.)
GDP - composition by sector: agriculture: 20% industry: 33.4% services: 46.6% (1995)
Inflation rate - consumer price index: 56.9% (1996 est.)
Labor force: total : 10.1 million (1996 est.) by occupation: industry 28.8%, agriculture 36.4%, other 34.8% (1994)
Unemployment rate: 6.1% (1996 est.)
Budget: revenues: $6 billion expenditures: $7.3 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1996 est.)
Industries: mining, timber, construction materials, metallurgy, chemicals, machine building, food processing, petroleum production and refining
Industrial production growth rate: 7% (1996 est.)
Electricity - capacity: 22.06 million kW (1994)
Electricity - production: 52.48 billion kWh (1994)
Electricity - consumption per capita: 2,245 kWh (1995 est.)
Agriculture - products: wheat, corn, sugar beets, sunflower seed, potatoes, grapes; milk, eggs, meat
Exports: total value: $7.7 billion (f.o.b., 1996 est.) commodities: textiles and footwear 25.2%, metals and metal products 19.4%, fuels and mineral products 10.0%, chemicals 9.4%, other 36.0% (1995) partners : Germany 17.8%, Italy 15.6%, France 5.7%, Turkey 4.5%, Netherlands 3.0%, China 3.0% (1995)
Imports: total value : $93.8 billion (f.o.b., 1996 est.) commodities: fuels and minerals 25.1%, machinery and transport equipment 19.4%, food and agricultural goods 6.1%, chemicals 9.0%, other 40.4% (1995) partners: Germany 17.1%, Italy 13.2%, Russia 12.6%, France 5.2%, US 4.2%, Egypt 4.1% (1995)
Debt - external: $7.8 billion (1996 est.)
Economic aid: recipient: ODA, $81 million (1993)
Currency: 1 leu (L) = 100 bani
Exchange rates: lei (L) per US$1 - 5,970 (January 1997), 3,085.39 (1996), 2,033.28 (1995), 1,655.09 (1994), 760.05 (1993), 307.95 (1992)
Fiscal year: calendar year
@Romania:Communications
Telephones: 2.6 million (1993 est.)
Telephone system: domestic: poor service; 89% of telephone network is automatic; trunk network is microwave radio relay; roughly 3,300 villages with no service (February 1990 est.) international: satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat; new digital international direct-dial exchanges are in Bucharest (1993 est.)
Radio broadcast stations: AM 12, FM 5, shortwave 0 note: in 1995, 135 local radio stations were registered
Radios: 4.64 million (1992 est.)
Television broadcast stations: 436 cable TV stations, 66 local TV stations
Televisions: 4.58 million (1992 est.)
@Romania:Transportation
Railways: total : 11,365 km broad gauge: 45 km 1.524-m gauge standard gauge: 10,893 km 1.435-m gauge (3,723 km electrified; 3,060 km double track) narrow gauge: 427 km 0.760-m gauge (1994)
Highways: total : 153,170 km paved: 78,117 km (including 113 km of expressways) unpaved: 75,053 km (1995 est.)
Waterways: 1,724 km (1984)
Pipelines: crude oil 2,800 km; petroleum products 1,429 km; natural gas 6,400 km (1992)
Ports and harbors: Braila, Constanta, Galati, Mangalia, Sulina, Tulcea
Merchant marine: total: 234 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 2,445,810 GRT/3,654,660 DWT ships by type: bulk 39, cargo 167, container 2, oil tanker 13, passenger 1, passenger-cargo 1, railcar carrier 2, roll-on/roll-off cargo 9 note : Romania owns an additional 18 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 1,025,108 DWT operating under the registries of The Bahamas, Bermuda, Cyprus, Liberia, Malta, and Syria (1996 est.)
Airports: 156 (1994 est.)
Airports - with paved runways: total: 27 over 3,047 m: 4 2,438 to 3,047 m: 9 1,524 to 2,437 m: 14 (1994 est.)
Airports - with unpaved runways: total: 129 2,438 to 3,047 m : 3 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 914 to 1,523 m: 17 under 914 m: 108 (1994 est.)
Military
Military branches: Army, Navy, Air and Air Defense Forces, Paramilitary Forces, Civil Defense
Military manpower - military age: 20 years of age
Military manpower - availability: males age 15-49: 5,884,704 (1997 est.)
Military manpower - fit for military service: males: 4,955,267 (1997 est.)
Military manpower - reaching military age annually: males: 201,752 (1997 est.)
Military expenditures - dollar figure: $650 million (1996)
Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 2.5% (1996)
Transnational Issues
Disputes - international: dispute with Ukraine over continental shelf of the Black Sea under which significant gas and oil deposits may exist; agreed to two-year negotiating period, after which either party can refer dispute to the International Court of Justice
Illicit drugs: important transshipment point for Southwest Asian heroin transiting the Balkan route and small amounts of Latin American cocaine bound for Western Europe ______________________________________________________________________
RUSSIA
@Russia:Geography
Location: Northern Asia (that part west of the Urals is sometimes included with Europe), bordering the Arctic Ocean, between Europe and the North Pacific Ocean
Geographic coordinates: 60 00 N, 100 00 E
Map references: Asia
Area: total: 17,075,200 sq km land: 16,995,800 sq km water: 79,400 sq km
Area - comparative: slightly less than 1.8 times the size of the US
Land boundaries: total : 19,917 km border countries: Azerbaijan 284 km, Belarus 959 km, China (southeast) 3,605 km, China (south) 40 km, Estonia 294 km, Finland 1,313 km, Georgia 723 km, Kazakstan 6,846 km, North Korea 19 km, Latvia 217 km, Lithuania (Kaliningrad Oblast) 227 km, Mongolia 3,441 km, Norway 167 km, Poland (Kaliningrad Oblast) 206 km, Ukraine 1,576 km
Coastline: 37,653 km
Maritime claims: continental shelf : 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation exclusive economic zone: 200 nm territorial sea: 12 nm
Climate: ranges from steppes in the south through humid continental in much of European Russia; subarctic in Siberia to tundra climate in the polar north; winters vary from cool along Black Sea coast to frigid in Siberia; summers vary from warm in the steppes to cool along Arctic coast
Terrain: broad plain with low hills west of Urals; vast coniferous forest and tundra in Siberia; uplands and mountains along southern border regions
Elevation extremes: lowest point: Caspian Sea -28 m highest point: Mount El'brus 5,633 m
Natural resources: wide natural resource base including major deposits of oil, natural gas, coal, and many strategic minerals, timber note: formidable obstacles of climate, terrain, and distance hinder exploitation of natural resources
Land use: arable land : 8% permanent crops: 0% permanent pastures: 4% forests and woodland: 46% other: 42% (1993 est.)
Irrigated land: 40,000 sq km (1993 est.)
Natural hazards: permafrost over much of Siberia is a major impediment to development; volcanic activity in the Kuril Islands; volcanoes and earthquakes on the Kamchatka Peninsula
Environment - current issues: air pollution from heavy industry, emissions of coal-fired electric plants, and transportation in major cities; industrial and agricultural pollution of inland waterways and sea coasts; deforestation; soil erosion; soil contamination from improper application of agricultural chemicals; scattered areas of sometimes intense radioactive contamination
Environment - international agreements: party to: Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Law of the Sea
Geography - note: largest country in the world in terms of area but unfavorably located in relation to major sea lanes of the world; despite its size, much of the country lacks proper soils and climates (either too cold or too dry) for agriculture
@Russia:People
Population: 147,305,569 (July 1997 est.)
Age structure: 0-14 years : 20% (male 15,258,810; female 14,683,485) 15-64 years: 67% (male 47,945,470; female 51,067,792) 65 years and over: 13% (male 5,645,915; female 12,704,097) (July 1997 est.)
Population growth rate: -0.29% (1997 est.)
Birth rate: 9.52 births/1,000 population (1997 est.)
Death rate: 14.84 deaths/1,000 population (1997 est.)
Net migration rate: 2.38 migrant(s)/1,000 population (1997 est.)
Sex ratio: at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.94 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.44 male(s)/female total population: 0.88 male(s)/female (1997 est.)
Infant mortality rate: 23.5 deaths/1,000 live births (1997 est.)
Life expectancy at birth: total population: 64.81 years male: 58.39 years female: 71.56 years (1997 est.)
Total fertility rate: 1.35 children born/woman (1997 est.)
Nationality: noun: Russian(s) adjective: Russian
Ethnic groups: Russian 81.5%, Tatar 3.8%, Ukrainian 3%, Chuvash 1.2%, Bashkir 0.9%, Byelorussian 0.8%, Moldavian 0.7%, other 8.1%
Religions: Russian Orthodox, Muslim, other
Languages: Russian, other