Chapter 44
Overview: India's economy is a mixture of traditional village farming, modern agriculture, handicrafts, a wide range of modern industries, and a multitude of support services. Faster economic growth in the 1980s permitted a significant increase in real per capita private consumption. A large share of the population, perhaps as much as 40%, remains too poor to afford an adequate diet. Financial strains in 1990 and 1991 prompted government austerity measures that slowed industrial growth but permitted India to meet its international payment obligations without rescheduling its debt. Policy reforms since 1991 have extended earlier economic liberalization and greatly reduced government controls on production, trade, and investment. National product: GDP - exchange rate conversion - $240 billion (FY93 est.) National product real growth rate: 4% (FY93 est.) National product per capita: $270 (FY93 est.) Inflation rate (consumer prices): 11.9% (1992 est.) Unemployment rate: NA% Budget: revenues $39.2 billion; expenditures $41.06 billion, including capital expenditures of $10.2 billion (FY92) Exports: $19.8 billion (f.o.b., FY93 est.) commodities: gems and jewelry, clothing, engineering goods, leather manufactures, cotton yarn, and fabric partners: USSR 16.1%, US 14.7%, West Germany 7.8% (FY91) Imports: $25.5 billion (c.i.f., FY93 est.) commodities: crude oil and petroleum products, gems, fertilizer, chemicals, machinery partners: US 12.1%, West Germany 8.0%, Japan 7.5% (FY91) External debt: $73 billion (March 1992) Industrial production: growth rate 2.5% (FY93 est.); accounts for about 25% of GDP Electricity: 82,000,000 kW capacity; 310,000 million kWh produced, 340 kWh per capita (1992) Industries: textiles, chemicals, food processing, steel, transportation equipment, cement, mining, petroleum, machinery Agriculture: accounts for about 30% of GDP and employs 67% of labor force; principal crops - rice, wheat, oilseeds, cotton, jute, tea, sugarcane, potatoes; livestock - cattle, buffaloes, sheep, goats, poultry; fish catch of about 3 million metric tons ranks India among the world's top 10 fishing nations Illicit drugs: licit producer of opium poppy for the pharmaceutical trade, but some opium is diverted to illicit international drug markets; major transit country for illicit narcotics produced in neighboring countries; illicit producer of hashish
*India, Economy
Economic aid: US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $4.4 billion; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1980-89), $31.7 billion; OPEC bilateral aid (1979-89), $315 million; USSR (1970-89), $11.6 billion; Eastern Europe (1970-89), $105 million Currency: 1 Indian rupee (Re) = 100 paise Exchange rates: Indian rupees (Rs) per US$1 - 26.156 (January 1993), 25.918 (1992), 22.742 (1991), 17.504 (1990), 16.226 (1989), 13.917 (1988) Fiscal year: 1 April - 31 March
*India, Communications
Railroads: 61,850 km total (1986); 33,553 km 1.676-meter broad gauge, 24,051 km 1.000-meter gauge, 4,246 km narrow gauge (0.762 meter and 0.610 meter); 12,617 km is double track; 6,500 km is electrified Highways: 1,970,000 km total (1989); 960,000 km surfaced and 1,010,000 km gravel, crushed stone, or earth Inland waterways: 16,180 km; 3,631 km navigable by large vessels Pipelines: crude oil 3,497 km; petroleum products 1,703 km; natural gas 902 km (1989) Ports: Bombay, Calcutta, Cochin, Kandla, Madras, New Mangalore, Port Blair (Andaman Islands) Merchant marine: 306 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 6,278,672 GRT/10,446,073 DWT; includes 1 short-sea passenger, 6 passenger-cargo, 87 cargo, 1 roll-on/roll-off, 8 container, 63 oil tanker, 10 chemical tanker, 8 combination ore/oil, 114 bulk, 2 combination bulk, 6 liquefied gas Airports: total: 336 usable: 285 with permanent-surface runways: 205 with runways over 3,659 m: 2 with runways 2,440-3,659 m: 58 with runways 1,220-2,439 m: 90 Telecommunications: domestic telephone system is poor providing only one telephone for about 200 persons on average; long distance telephoning has been improved by a domestic satellite system which also carries TV; international service is provided by 3 Indian Ocean INTELSAT earth stations and by submarine cables to Malaysia and the United Arab Emirates; broadcast stations - 96 AM, 4 FM, 274 TV (government controlled)
*India, Defense Forces
Branches: Army, Navy, Air Force, Security or Paramilitary Forces (including Border Security Force, Assam Rifles, and Coast Guard) Manpower availability: males age 15-49 242,866,053; fit for military service 143,008,471; about 9,466,323 reach military age (17) annually (1993 est.) Defense expenditures: exchange rate conversion - $5.8 billion, 2.4% of GDP (FY93/94)
*Indian Ocean, Geography
Location: body of water between Africa, Asia, Australia, and Antarctica Map references: Southeast Asia, Standard Time Zones of the World Area: total area: 73.6 million km2 comparative area: slightly less than eight times the size of the US; third-largest ocean (after the Pacific Ocean and Atlantic Ocean, but larger than the Arctic Ocean) note: includes Arabian Sea, Bass Straight, Bay of Bengal, Java Sea, Persian Gulf, Red Sea, Straight of Malacca, Timor Sea, and other tributary water bodies Coastline: 66,526 km International disputes: some maritime disputes (see littoral states) Climate: northeast monsoon (December to April), southwest monsoon (June to October); tropical cyclones occur during May/June and October/November in the north Indian Ocean and January/February in the south Indian Ocean Terrain: surface dominated by counterclockwise gyre (broad, circular system of currents) in the south Indian Ocean; unique reversal of surface currents in the north Indian Ocean, low atmospheric pressure over southwest Asia from hot, rising, summer air results in the southwest monsoon and southwest-to-northeast winds and currents, while high pressure over northern Asia from cold, falling, winter air results in the northeast monsoon and northeast-to-southwest winds and currents; ocean floor is dominated by the Mid-Indian Ocean Ridge and subdivided by the Southeast Indian Ocean Ridge, Southwest Indian Ocean Ridge, and Ninety East Ridge; maximum depth is 7,258 meters in the Java Trench Natural resources: oil and gas fields, fish, shrimp, sand and gravel aggregates, placer deposits, polymetallic nodules Environment: endangered marine species include the dugong, seals, turtles, and whales; oil pollution in the Arabian Sea, Persian Gulf, and Red Sea Note: major chokepoints include Bab el Mandeb, Strait of Hormuz, Strait of Malacca, southern access to the Suez Canal, and the Lombok Strait; ships subject to superstructure icing in extreme south near Antarctica from May to October
*Indian Ocean, Government
Digraph: XO
*Indian Ocean, Economy
Overview: The Indian Ocean provides major sea routes connecting the Middle East, Africa, and East Asia with Europe and the Americas. It carries a particularly heavy traffic of petroleum and petroleum products from the oil fields of the Persian Gulf and Indonesia. Its fish are of great and growing importance to the bordering countries for domestic consumption and export. Fishing fleets from Russia, Japan, Korea, and Taiwan also exploit the Indian Ocean, mainly for shrimp and tuna. Large reserves of hydrocarbons are being tapped in the offshore areas of Saudi Arabia, Iran, India, and Western Australia. An estimated 40% of the world's offshore oil production comes from the Indian Ocean. Beach sands rich in heavy minerals and offshore placer deposits are actively exploited by bordering countries, particularly India, South Africa, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and Thailand. Industries: based on exploitation of natural resources, particularly marine life, minerals, oil and gas production, fishing, sand and gravel aggregates, placer deposits
*Indian Ocean, Communications
Ports: Bombay (India), Calcutta (India), Madras (India), Colombo (Sri Lanka), Durban (South Africa), Fremantle (Australia), Jakarta (Indonesia), Melbourne (Australia), Richard's Bay (South Africa) Telecommunications: submarine cables from India to United Arab Emirates and Malaysia, and from Sri Lanka to Djibouti and Indonesia
*Indonesia, Geography
Location: Southeast Asia, between Malaysia and Australia Map references: Oceania, Southeast Asia, Standard Time Zones of the World Area: total area: 1,919,440 km2 land area: 1,826,440 km2 comparative area: slightly less than three times the size of Texas Land boundaries: total 2,602 km, Malaysia 1,782 km, Papua New Guinea 820 km Coastline: 54,716 km Maritime claims: measured from claimed archipelagic baselines exclusive economic zone: 200 nm territorial sea: 12 nm International disputes: sovereignty over Timor Timur (East Timor Province) disputed with Portugal and not recognized by the UN; two islands in dispute with Malaysia Climate: tropical; hot, humid; more moderate in highlands Terrain: mostly coastal lowlands; larger islands have interior mountains Natural resources: petroleum, tin, natural gas, nickel, timber, bauxite, copper, fertile soils, coal, gold, silver Land use: arable land: 8% permanent crops: 3% meadows and pastures: 7% forest and woodland: 67% other: 15% Irrigated land: 75,500 km2 (1989 est.) Environment: archipelago of 13,500 islands (6,000 inhabited); occasional floods, severe droughts, and tsunamis; deforestation Note: straddles Equator; strategic location astride or along major sea lanes from Indian Ocean to Pacific Ocean
*Indonesia, People
Population: 197,232,428 (July 1993 est.) Population growth rate: 1.61% (1993 est.) Birth rate: 24.84 births/1,000 population (1993 est.) Death rate: 8.73 deaths/1,000 population (1993 est.) Net migration rate: 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (1993 est.) Infant mortality rate: 69.6 deaths/1,000 live births (1993 est.) Life expectancy at birth: total population: 60.26 years male: 58.28 years female: 62.34 years (1993 est.) Total fertility rate: 2.86 children born/woman (1993 est.) Nationality: noun: Indonesian(s) adjective: Indonesian Ethnic divisions: Javanese 45%, Sundanese 14%, Madurese 7.5%, coastal Malays 7.5%, other 26% Religions: Muslim 87%, Protestant 6%, Roman Catholic 3%, Hindu 2%, Buddhist 1%, other 1% (1985) Languages: Bahasa Indonesia (modified form of Malay; official), English, Dutch, local dialects the most widely spoken of which is Javanese Literacy: age 15 and over can read and write (1990) total population: 77% male: 84% female: 68% Labor force: 67 million by occupation: agriculture 55%, manufacturing 10%, construction 4%, transport and communications 3% (1985 est.)
*Indonesia, Government
Names: conventional long form: Republic of Indonesia conventional short form: Indonesia local long form: Republik Indonesia local short form: Indonesia former name: Netherlands East Indies; Dutch East Indies Digraph: ID Type: republic Capital: Jakarta Administrative divisions: 24 provinces (propinsi-propinsi, singular - propinsi), 2 special regions*, (daerah-daerah istimewa, singular - daerah istimewa), and 1 special capital city district** (daerah khusus ibukota); Aceh*, Bali, Bengkulu, Irian Jaya,, Jakarta Raya**,, Jambi, Jawa Barat, Jawa Tengah, Jawa Timur, Kalimantan Barat, Kalimantan Selatan, Kalimantan Tengah, Kalimantan Timur, Lampung, Maluku, Nusa Tenggara Barat, Nusa Tenggara Timur, Riau, Sulawesi Selatan, Sulawesi Tengah, Sulawesi Tenggara, Sulawesi Utara, Sumatera Barat, Sumatera Selatan, Sumatera Utara, Timor Timur, Yogyakarta*, Independence: 17 August 1945 (proclaimed independence; on 27 December 1949, Indonesia became legally independent from the Netherlands) Constitution: August 1945, abrogated by Federal Constitution of 1949 and Provisional Constitution of 1950, restored 5 July 1959 Legal system: based on Roman-Dutch law, substantially modified by indigenous concepts and by new criminal procedures code; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction National holiday: Independence Day, 17 August (1945) Political parties and leaders: GOLKAR (quasi-official party based on functional groups), Lt. Gen. (Ret.) WAHONO, general chairman; Indonesia Democracy Party (PDI - federation of former Nationalist and Christian Parties), SOERYADI, chairman; Development Unity Party (PPP, federation of former Islamic parties), Ismail Hasan METAREUM, chairman Suffrage: 17 years of age; universal and married persons regardless of age Elections: House of Representatives: last held on 8 June 1992 (next to be held NA 1997); results - GOLKAR 68%, PPP 17%, PDI 15%; seats - (500 total, 400 elected, 100 appointed) GOLKAR 282, PPP 62, PDI 56 Executive branch: president, vice president, Cabinet Legislative branch: unicameral House of Representatives (Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat or DPR); note - the People's Consultative Assembly (Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat or MPR) includes the DPR plus 500 indirectly elected members who meet every five years to elect the president and vice president and, theoretically, to determine national policy
*Indonesia, Government
Judicial branch: Supreme Court (Mahkamah Agung) Leaders: Chief of State and Head of Government: President Gen. (Ret.) SOEHARTO (since 27 March 1968); Vice President Gen. (Ret.) Try SUTRISNO (since 11 March 1993) Member of: APEC, AsDB, ASEAN, CCC, CP, ESCAP, FAO, G-15, G-19, G-77, GATT, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICFTU, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, ILO, IMF, IMO, INMARSAT, INTELSAT, INTERPOL, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO, ITU, LORCS, NAM, OIC, OPEC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNIKOM, UNOSOM, UNTAC, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO Diplomatic representation in US: chief of mission: Ambassador Abdul Rachman RAMLY chancery: 2020 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20036 telephone: (202) 775-5200 consulates general: Houston, New York, and Los Angeles consulates: Chicago and San Francisco US diplomatic representation: chief of mission: Ambassador Robert L. BARRY embassy: Medan Merdeka Selatan 5, Jakarta mailing address: APO AP 96520 telephone: [62] (21) 360-360 FAX: [62] (21) 360-644 consulates: Medan, Surabaya Flag: two equal horizontal bands of red (top) and white; similar to the flag of Monaco, which is shorter; also similar to the flag of Poland, which is white (top) and red
*Indonesia, Economy
Overview: Indonesia is a mixed economy with many socialist institutions and central planning but with a recent emphasis on deregulation and private enterprise. Indonesia has extensive natural wealth, yet, with a large and rapidly increasing population, it remains a poor country. Real GDP growth in 1985-92 averaged about 6%, quite impressive, but not sufficient to both slash underemployment and absorb the 2.3 million workers annually entering the labor force. Agriculture, including forestry and fishing, is an important sector, accounting for almost 20% of GDP and over 50% of the labor force. The staple crop is rice. Once the world's largest rice importer, Indonesia is now nearly self-sufficient. Plantation crops - rubber and palm oil - and textiles and plywood are being encouraged for both export and job generation. Industrial output now accounts for almost 40% of GDP and is based on a supply of diverse natural resources, including crude oil, natural gas, timber, metals, and coal. Of these, the oil sector dominates the external economy, generating more than 20% of the government's revenues and 40% of export earnings in 1989. However, the economy's growth is highly dependent on the continuing expansion of nonoil exports. Japan remains Indonesia's most important customer and supplier of aid. Rapid growth in the money supply in 1989-90 prompted Jakarta to implement a tight monetary policy in 1991, forcing the private sector to go to foreign banks for investment financing. Real interest rates remained above 10% and off-shore commercial debt grew. The growth in off-shore debt prompted Jakarta to limit foreign borrowing beginning in late 1991. Despite the continued problems in moving toward a more open financial system and the persistence of a fairly tight credit situation, GDP growth in 1992 is estimated to have stayed at 6%. National product: GDP - exchange rate conversion - $133 billion (1992 est.) National product real growth rate: 6% (1992 est.) National product per capita: $680 (1992 est.) Inflation rate (consumer prices): 8% (1992 est.) Unemployment rate: 3% ; underemployment 45% (1991 est.) Budget: revenues $17.2 billion; expenditures $23.4 billion, including capital expenditures of $8.9 billion (FY91) Exports: $29.4 billion (f.o.b., 1991) commodities: petroleum and liquefied natural gas 40%, timber 15%, textiles 7%, rubber 5%, coffee 3% partners: Japan 37%, Europe 13%, US 12%, Singapore 8% (1991) Imports: $24.6 billion (f.o.b., 1991) commodities: machinery 39%, chemical products 19%, manufactured goods 16% partners: Japan 25%, Europe 23%, US 13%, Singapore 5% (1991) External debt: $50.5 billion (1992 est.) Industrial production: growth rate 11.6% (1989 est.); accounts for almost 40% of GDP
*Indonesia, Economy
Electricity: 11,600,000 kW capacity; 38,000 million kWh produced, 200 kWh per capita (1990) Industries: petroleum and natural gas, textiles, mining, cement, chemical fertilizers, plywood, food, rubber Agriculture: accounts for almost 20% of GDP; subsistence food production; small-holder and plantation production for export; main products are rice, cassava, peanuts, rubber, cocoa, coffee, palm oil, copra, other tropical products, poultry, beef, pork, eggs Illicit drugs: illicit producer of cannabis for the international drug trade, but not a major player; government actively eradicating plantings and prosecuting traffickers Economic aid: US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-89), $4.4 billion; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-89), $25.9 billion; OPEC bilateral aid (1979-89), $213 million; Communist countries (1970-89), $175 million Currency: 1 Indonesian rupiah (Rp) = 100 sen (sen no longer used) Exchange rates: Indonesian rupiahs (Rp) per US$1 - 2,064.7 (January 1993), 2,029.9 (1992), 1,950.3 (1991), 1,842.8 (1990), 1,770.1 (1989), 1,685.7 (1988) Fiscal year: 1 April - 31 March
*Indonesia, Communications
Railroads: 6,964 km total; 6,389 km 1.067-meter gauge, 497 km 0.750-meter gauge, 78 km 0.600-meter gauge; 211 km double track; 101 km electrified; all government owned Highways: 119,500 km total; 11,812 km state, 34,180 km provincial, and 73,508 km district roads Inland waterways: 21,579 km total; Sumatra 5,471 km, Java and Madura 820 km, Kalimantan 10,460 km, Celebes 241 km, Irian Jaya 4,587 km Pipelines: crude oil 2,505 km; petroleum products 456 km; natural gas 1,703 km (1989) Ports: Cilacap, Cirebon, Jakarta, Kupang, Palembang, Ujungpandang, Semarang, Surabaya Merchant marine: 401 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 1,766,201 GRT/2,642,529 DWT; includes 6 short-sea passenger, 13 passenger-cargo, 238 cargo, 10 container, 4 roll-on/roll-off cargo, 4 vehicle carrier, 78 oil tanker, 6 chemical tanker, 6 liquefied gas, 7 specialized tanker, 1 livestock carrier, 26 bulk, 2 passenger Airports: total: 435 usable: 411 with permanent-surface runways: 119 with runways over 3,659 m: 1 with runways 2,440-3,659 m: 11 with runways 1,220-2,439 m: 67 Telecommunications: interisland microwave system and HF police net; domestic service fair, international service good; radiobroadcast coverage good; 763,000 telephones (1986); broadcast stations - 618 AM, 38 FM, 9 TV; satellite earth stations - 1 Indian Ocean INTELSAT earth station and 1 Pacific Ocean INTELSAT earth station; and 1 domestic satellite communications system
*Indonesia, Defense Forces
Branches: Army, Navy, Air Force, National Police Manpower availability: males age 15-49 53,160,364; fit for military service 31,395,254; reach military age (18) annually 2,148,927 (1993 est.) Defense expenditures: exchange rate conversion - $2.1 billion, 1.5% of GNP (FY93/94 est.)
*Iran, Geography
Location: Middle East, between the Persian Gulf and the Caspian Sea Map references: Asia, Middle East, Standard Time Zones of the World Area: total area: 1.648 million km2 land area: 1.636 million km2 comparative area: slightly larger than Alaska Land boundaries: total 5,440 km, Afghanistan 936 km, Armenia 35 km, Azerbaijan (north) 432 km, Azerbaijan (northwest) 179 km, Iraq 1,458 km, Pakistan 909 km, Turkey 499 km, Turkmenistan 992 km Coastline: 2,440 km note: Iran also borders the Caspian Sea (740 km) Maritime claims: continental shelf: not specified exclusive fishing zone: 50 nm in the Sea of Oman; continental shelf limit, continental shelf boundaries, or median lines in the Persian Gulf territorial sea: 12 nm International disputes: Iran and Iraq restored diplomatic relations in 1990 but are still trying to work out written agreements settling outstanding disputes from their eight-year war concerning border demarcation, prisoners-of-war, and freedom of navigation and sovereignty over the Shatt al Arab waterway; Iran occupies two islands in the Persian Gulf claimed by the UAE: Tunb as Sughra (Arabic), Jazireh-ye Tonb-e Kuchek (Persian) or Lesser Tunb, and Tunb al Kubra (Arabic), Jazireh-ye Tonb-e Bozorg (Persian) or Greater Tunb; it jointly administers with the UAE an island in the Persian Gulf claimed by the UAE, Abu Musa (Arabic) or Jazireh-ye Abu Musa (Persian); in 1992 the dispute over Abu Musa and the Tunb Islands became more acute when Iran unilaterally tried to control the entry of third country nationals into the UAE portion of Abu Musa island, Tehran subsequently backed off in the face of significant diplomatic support for the UAE in the region; periodic disputes with Afghanistan over Helmand water rights, Climate: mostly arid or semiarid, subtropical along Caspian coast Terrain: rugged, mountainous rim; high, central basin with deserts, mountains; small, discontinuous plains along both coasts Natural resources: petroleum, natural gas, coal, chromium, copper, iron ore, lead, manganese, zinc, sulfur Land use: arable land: 8% permanent crops: 0% meadows and pastures: 27% forest and woodland: 11%
*Iran, Geography
other: 54% Irrigated land: 57,500 km2 (1989 est.) Environment: deforestation; overgrazing; desertification
*Iran, People