Part 76
Agriculture: diversified, with many small private holdings and large combines; main crops--corn, wheat, tobacco, sugar beets, sunflowers; occasionally a net exporter of corn, tobacco, foodstuffs, live animals
Aid: donor--about $3.5 billion in bilateral aid to non-Communist less developed countries (1966-88)
Currency: Yugoslav dinar (plural--dinars); 1 Yugoslav dinar (YD) = 100 paras; note--on 1 January 1990, Yugoslavia began issuing a new currency with 1 new dinar equal to 10,000 YD
Exchange rates: Yugoslav dinars (YD) per US$1--118,568 (January 1990), 28,764 (1989), 2,523 (1988), 737 (1987), 379 (1986), 270 (1985); note--as of February 1990 the new dinar is linked to the FRG deutsche mark at the rate of 7 new dinars per 1 deustche mark
Fiscal year: calendar year
- Communications Railroads: 9,270 km total; (all 1.435-meter standard gauge) including 926 km double track, 3,771 km electrified (1987)
Highways: 120,747 km total; 71,315 km asphalt, concrete, stone block; 34,299 km macadam, asphalt treated, gravel, crushed stone; 15,133 km earth (1987)
Inland waterways: 2,600 km (1982)
Pipelines: 1,373 km crude oil; 2,900 km natural gas; 150 km refined products
Ports: Rijeka, Split, Koper, Bar, Ploce; inland port is Belgrade
Merchant marine: 270 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 3,608,705 GRT/5,809,219 DWT; includes 3 passenger, 4 short-sea passenger, 131 cargo, 3 refrigerated cargo, 16 container, 14 roll-on/roll-off cargo, 3 multifunction large-load carrier, 9 petroleum, oils, and lubricants (POL) tanker, 3 chemical tanker, 3 combination ore/oil, 73 bulk, 8 combination bulk; note--Yugoslavia owns 19 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 229,614 GRT/353,224 DWT under the registry of Liberia, Panama, and Cyprus
Civil air: NA major transport aircraft
Airports: 184 total, 184 usable; 54 with permanent-surface runways; none with runways over 3.659 m; 22 with runways 2,440 to 3,659 m; 20 with runways 1,220-2,439 m
Telecommunications: stations--199 AM, 87 FM, 50 TV; 4,107,846 TV sets; 4,700,000 radio receivers; satellite earth stations--1 Atlantic Ocean INTELSAT and 1 Indian Ocean INTELSAT
- Defense Forces Branches: Yugoslav People's Army--Ground Forces, Naval Forces, Air and Air Defense Forces, Frontier Guard, Territorial Defense Force, Civil Defense
Military manpower: males 15-49, 6,135,628; 4,970,420 fit for military service; 188,028 reach military age (19) annually
Defense expenditures: 14.8 trillion dinars, 4.6% of national income (1989 est.); note--conversion of the military budget into US dollars using the official administratively set exchange rate would produce misleading results ---------------------------------------------------- Country: Zaire - Geography Total area: 2,345,410 km2; land area: 2,267,600 km2
Comparative area: slightly more than one-quarter the size of US
Land boundaries: 10,271 km total; Angola 2,511 km, Burundi 233 km, Central African Republic 1,577 km, Congo 2,410 km, Rwanda 217 km, Sudan 628 km, Uganda 765 km, Zambia 1,930 km
Coastline: 37 km
Maritime claims:
Territorial sea: 12 nm
Disputes: Tanzania-Zaire-Zambia tripoint in Lake Tanganyika may no longer be indefinite since it is reported that the indefinite section of the Zaire-Zambia boundary has been settled; long section with Congo along the Congo River is indefinite (no division of the river or its islands has been made)
Climate: tropical; hot and humid in equatorial river basin; cooler and drier in southern highlands; cooler and wetter in eastern highlands; north of Equator--wet season April to October, dry season December to February; south of Equator--wet season November to March, dry season April to October
Terrain: vast central basin is a low-lying plateau; mountains in east
Natural resources: cobalt, copper, cadmium, crude oil, industrial and gem diamonds, gold, silver, zinc, manganese, tin, germanium, uranium, radium, bauxite, iron ore, coal, hydropower potential
Land use: 3% arable land; NEGL% permanent crops; 4% meadows and pastures; 78% forest and woodland; 15% other; includes NEGL% irrigated
Environment: dense tropical rainforest in central river basin and eastern highlands; periodic droughts in south
Note: straddles Equator; very narrow strip of land is only outlet to South Atlantic Ocean
- People Population: 36,589,468 (July 1990), growth rate 3.3% (1990)
Birth rate: 46 births/1,000 population (1990)
Death rate: 13 deaths/1,000 population (1990)
Net migration rate: NEGL migrants/1,000 population (1990)
Infant mortality rate: 103 deaths/1,000 live births (1990)
Life expectancy at birth: 51 years male, 55 years female (1990)
Total fertility rate: 6.2 children born/woman (1990)
Nationality: noun--Zairian(s); adjective--Zairian
Ethnic divisions: over 200 African ethnic groups, the majority are Bantu; four largest tribes--Mongo, Luba, Kongo (all Bantu), and the Mangbetu-Azande (Hamitic) make up about 45% of the population
Religion: 50% Roman Catholic, 20% Protestant, 10% Kimbanguist, 10% Muslim, 10% other syncretic sects and traditional beliefs
Language: French (official), Lingala, Swahili, Kingwana, Kikongo, Tshiluba
Literacy: 55% males, 37% females
Labor force: 15,000,000; 75% agriculture, 13% industry, 12% services; 13% wage earners (1981); 51% of population of working age (1985)
Organized labor: National Union of Workers of Zaire (UNTZA) is the only trade union
- Government Long-form name: Republic of Zaire
Type: republic with a strong presidential system
Capital: Kinshasa
Administrative divisions: 8 regions (regions, singular--region) and 1 town* (ville); Bandundu, Bas-Zaire, Equateur, Haut-Zaire, Kasai-Occidental, Kasai-Oriental, Kinshasa*, Kivu, Shaba; note--there may now be 10 regions with the elimination of Kivu and addition of Maniema, Nord-Kivu, and Sud-Kivu
Independence: 30 June 1960 (from Belgium; formerly Belgian Congo, then Congo/Leopoldville, then Congo/Kinshasa)
Constitution: 24 June 1967, amended August 1974, revised 15 February 1978
Legal system: based on Belgian civil law system and tribal law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
National holiday: Anniversary of the Regime (Second Republic), 24 November (1965)
Executive branch: president, prime minister, Executive Council (cabinet)
Legislative branch: unicameral National Legislative Council (Conseil Legislatif National)
Judicial branch: Supreme Court (Cour Supreme)
Leaders: Chief of State--President Marshal MOBUTU Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu wa Za Banga (since 24 November 1965);
Head of Government--Prime Minister LUNDA Bululu (since 25 April 1988)
Political parties and leaders: only party--Popular Movement of the Revolution (MPR)
Suffrage: universal and compulsory at age 18
Elections: President--last held 29 July 1984 (next to be held July 1991); results--President Mobutu was reelected without opposition;
National Legislative Council--last held 6 September 1987 (next to be held September 1992); results--MPR is the only party; seats--(210 total) MPR 210
Communists: no Communist party
Member of: ACP, AfDB, APC, CCC, CIPEC, EAMA, EIB (associate), FAO, G-77, GATT, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICO, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, INTELSAT, INTERPOL, IPU, ITC, ITU, NAM, OAU, OCAM, UN, UNESCO, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO
Diplomatic representation: Ambassador (vacant), Charge d'Affaires MUKENDI Tambo a Kabila; Chancery at 1800 New Hampshire Avenue NW, Washington DC 20009; telephone (202) 234-7690 or 7691; US--Ambassador William C. HARROP; Embassy at 310 Avenue des Aviateurs, Kinshasa (mailing address is APO New York 09662); telephone 243o (12) 25881 through 25886; there is a US Consulate General in Lubumbashi
Flag: light green with a yellow disk in the center bearing a black arm holding a red flaming torch; the flames of the torch are blowing away from the hoist side; uses the popular pan-African colors of Ethiopia
- Economy Overview: In 1988, in spite of large mineral resources and one of the most developed and diversified economies in Sub-Saharan Africa, Zaire had a GDP per capita of $195, one of the lowest on the continent. Agriculture, a key sector of the economy, employs 75% of the population but generates under 30% of GDP. The main impetus for economic development has been the extractive industries. Mining and mineral processing account for about one-third of GDP and two-thirds of total export earnings. During the period 1983-88 the economy experienced slow growth, high inflation, a rising foreign debt, and a drop in foreign exchange earnings. Recent increases in foreign prices for copper--a key export earner--and other minerals offer some hope of reversing the economic decline. Zaire is the world's largest producer of diamonds.
GDP: $6.5 billion, per capita $195; real growth rate 2.8% (1988)
Inflation rate (consumer prices): 82% (1988)
Unemployment rate: NA%
Budget: revenues $856 million; expenditures $2.3 billion, including capital expenditures of $655 million (1988)
Exports: $2.2 billion (f.o.b., 1988); commodities--copper 37%, coffee 24%, diamonds 12%, cobalt, crude oil; partners--US, Belgium, France, FRG, Italy, UK, Japan
Imports: $1.9 billion (f.o.b., 1988); commodities--consumer goods, foodstuffs, mining and other machinery, transport equipment, fuels; partners--US, Belgium, France, FRG, Italy, Japan, UK
External debt: $8.6 billion (December 1989 est.)
Industrial production: growth rate NA%
Electricity: 2,574,000 kW capacity; 5,550 million kWh produced, 160 kWh per capita (1989)
Industries: mining, mineral processing, consumer products (including textiles, footwear, and cigarettes), processed foods and beverages, cement, diamonds
Agriculture: cash crops--coffee, palm oil, rubber, quinine; food crops--cassava, bananas, root crops, corn
Illicit drugs: illicit producer of cannabis, mostly for domestic consumption
Aid: US commitments, including Ex-Im (FY70-88), $998 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-87), $6.0 billion; OPEC bilateral aid (1979-89), $35 million; Communist countries (1970-88), $263 million
Currency: zaire (plural--zaire); 1 zaire (Z) = 100 makuta
Exchange rates: zaire (Z) per US$1--465.000 (January 1989), 381.445 (1989), 187.070 (1988), 112.403 (1987), 59.625 (1986), 49.873 (1985)
Fiscal year: calendar year
- Communications Railroads: 5,254 km total; 3,968 km 1.067-meter gauge (851 km electrified); 125 km 1.000-meter gauge; 136 km 0.615-meter gauge; 1,025 km 0.600-meter gauge
Highways: 146,500 km total; 2,550 km bituminous, 46,450 km gravel and improved earth; remainder unimproved earth
Inland waterways: 15,000 km including the Congo, its tributaries, and unconnected lakes
Pipelines: refined products 390 km
Ports: Matadi, Boma, Banana
Merchant marine: 4 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 41,802 GRT/60,496 DWT; includes 1 passenger cargo, 3 cargo
Civil air: 38 major transport aircraft
Airports: 312 total, 258 usable; 25 with permanent-surface runways; 1 with runways over 3,659 m; 6 with runways 2,440-3,659 m; 71 with runways 1,220-2,439 m
Telecommunications: barely adequate wire and radio relay service; 31,200 telephones; stations--10 AM, 4 FM, 18 TV; satellite earth stations--1 Atlantic Ocean INTELSAT, 14 domestic
- Defense Forces Branches: Army, Navy, Air Force, National Gendarmerie, Logistics Corps, Special Presidential Division
Military manpower: males 15-49, 7,970,619; 4,057,561 fit for military service
Defense expenditures: $67 million (1988) ---------------------------------------------------- Country: Zambia - Geography Total area: 752,610 km2; land area: 740,720 km2
Comparative area: slightly larger than Texas
Land boundaries: 5,664 km total; Angola 1,110 km, Malawi 837 km, Mozambique 419 km, Namibia 233 km, Tanzania 338 km, Zaire 1,930 km, Zimbabwe 797 km
Coastline: none--landlocked
Maritime claims: none--landlocked
Disputes: quadripoint with Botswana, Namibia, and Zimbabwe is in disagreement; Tanzania-Zaire-Zambia tripoint in Lake Tanganyika may no longer be indefinite since it is reported that the indefinite section of the Zaire-Zambia boundary has been settled
Climate: tropical; modified by altitude; rainy season (October to April)
Terrain: mostly high plateau with some hills and mountains
Natural resources: copper, cobalt, zinc, lead, coal, emeralds, gold, silver, uranium, hydropower potential
Land use: 7% arable land; NEGL% permanent crops; 47% meadows and pastures; 27% forest and woodland; 19% other; includes NEGL% irrigated
Environment: deforestation; soil erosion; desertification
Note: landlocked
- People Population: 8,112,782 (July 1990), growth rate 3.2% (1990)
Birth rate: 49 births/1,000 population (1990)
Death rate: 12 deaths/1,000 population (1990)
Net migration rate: - 6 migrants/1,000 population (1990)
Infant mortality rate: 80 deaths/1,000 live births (1990)
Life expectancy at birth: 55 years male, 58 years female (1990)
Total fertility rate: 7.0 children born/woman (1990)
Nationality: noun--Zambian(s); adjective--Zambian
Ethnic divisions: 98.7% African, 1.1% European, 0.2% other
Religion: 50-75% Christian, 1% Muslim and Hindu, remainder indigenous beliefs
Language: English (official); about 70 indigenous languages
Literacy: 75.7%
Labor force: 2,455,000; 85% agriculture; 6% mining, manufacturing, and construction; 9% transport and services
Organized labor: about 238,000 wage earners are unionized
- Government Long-form name: Republic of Zambia
Type: one-party state
Capital: Lusaka
Administrative divisions: 9 provinces; Central, Copperbelt, Eastern, Luapula, Lusaka, Northern, North-Western, Southern, Western
Independence: 24 October 1964 (from UK; formerly Northern Rhodesia)
Constitution: 25 August 1973
Legal system: based on English common law and customary law; judicial review of legislative acts in an ad hoc constitutional council; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
National holiday: Independence Day, 24 October (1964)
Executive branch: president, prime minister, Cabinet
Legislative branch: unicameral National Assembly
Judicial branch: Supreme Court
Leaders: Chief of State--President Dr. Kenneth David KAUNDA (since 24 October 1964);
Head of Government--Prime Minister Gen. Malimba MASHEKE (since 15 March 1989)
Political parties and leaders: only party--United National Independence Party (UNIP), Kenneth Kaunda
Suffrage: universal at age 18
Elections: President--last held 26 October 1988 (next to be held October 1993); results--President Kenneth Kaunda was reelected without opposition;
National Assembly--last held 26 October 1988 (next to be held October 1993); results--UNIP is the only party; seats--(136 total, 125 elected) UNIP 125
Communists: no Communist party
Member of: ACP, AfDB, CCC, Commonwealth, FAO, G-77, GATT (de facto), IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, IDA, IEA, IFAD, IFC, ILO, ILZSG, IMF, INTELSAT, INTERPOL, IPU, ITU, NAM, OAU, SADCC, UN, UNESCO, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO
Diplomatic representation: Ambassador Paul J. F. LUSAKA; Chancery at 2419 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington DC 20008; telephone (202) 265-9717 through 9721; US--Ambassador Jeffrey DAVIDOW; Embassy at corner of Independence Avenue and United Nations Avenue, Lusaka (mailing address is P. O. Box 31617, Lusaka); telephone 2601o 214911
Flag: green with a panel of three vertical bands of red (hoist side), black, and orange below a soaring orange eagle, on the outer edge of the flag
- Economy Overview: Despite temporary growth in 1988, the economy has been in decline for more than a decade with falling imports and growing foreign debt. Economic difficulties stem from a sustained drop in copper production and ineffective economic policies. In 1988 real GDP stood only slightly higher than that of 10 years before, while an annual population growth of more than 3% has brought a decline in per capita GDP of 25% during the same period. A high inflation rate has also added to Zambia's economic woes in recent years.
GDP: $4.0 billion, per capita $530; real growth rate 6.7% (1988)
Inflation rate (consumer prices): 55.7% (1988)
Unemployment rate: NA%
Budget: revenues $570 million; expenditures $939 million, including capital expenditures of $36 million (1988 est.)
Exports: $1,184 million (f.o.b., 1988); commodities--copper, zinc, cobalt, lead, tobacco; partners--EC, Japan, South Africa, US
Imports: $687 million (c.i.f., 1988); commodities--machinery, transportation equipment, foodstuffs, fuels, manufactures; partners--EC, Japan, South Africa, US
External debt: $6.9 billion (December 1989)
Industrial production: growth rate NA% (1986)
Electricity: 1,900,000 kW capacity; 8,245 million kWh produced, 1,050 kWh per capita (1989)
Industries: copper mining and processing, transport, construction, foodstuffs, beverages, chemicals, textiles, and fertilizer
Agriculture: accounts for 15% of GDP and 85% of labor force; crops--corn (food staple), sorghum, rice, peanuts, sunflower, tobacco, cotton, sugarcane, cassava; cattle, goats, beef, eggs produced; marginally self-sufficient in corn
Aid: US commitments, including Ex-Im (1970-88), $466 million; Western (non-US) countries, ODA and OOF bilateral commitments (1970-87), $4.2 billion; OPEC bilateral aid (1979-89), $60 million; Communist countries (1970-88), $533 million
Currency: Zambian kwacha (plural--kwacha); 1 Zambian kwacha (ZK) = 100 ngwee
Exchange rates: Zambian kwacha (ZK) per US$1--21.7865 (January 1990), 12.9032 (1989), 8.2237 (1988), 8.8889 (1987), 7.3046 (1986), 2.7137 (1985)
Fiscal year: calendar year
- Communications Railroads: 1,266 km, all 1.067-meter gauge; 13 km double track
Highways: 36,370 km total; 6,500 km paved, 7,000 km crushed stone, gravel, or stabilized soil; 22,870 km improved and unimproved earth
Inland waterways: 2,250 km, including Zambezi and Luapula Rivers, Lake Tanganyika
Pipelines: 1,724 km crude oil
Ports: Mpulungu (lake port)
Civil air: 6 major transport aircraft
Airports: 121 total, 106 usable; 13 with permanent-surface runways; 1 with runways over 3,659 m; 4 with runways 2,440-3,659 m; 22 with runways 1,220-2,439 m
Telecommunications: facilities are among the best in Sub-Saharan Africa; high-capacity radio relay connects most larger towns and cities; 71,700 telephones; stations--11 AM, 3 FM, 9 TV; satellite earth stations--1 Indian Ocean INTELSAT and 1 Atlantic Ocean INTELSAT
- Defense Forces Branches: Army, Air Force, Police, Paramilitary
Military manpower: males 15-49, 1,683,758; 883,283 fit for military service
Defense expenditures: NA ---------------------------------------------------- Country: Zimbabwe - Geography Total area: 390,580 km2; land area: 386,670 km2
Comparative area: slightly larger than Montana
Land boundaries: 3,066 km total; Botswana 813 km, Mozambique 1,231 km, South Africa 225 km, Zambia 797 km
Coastline: none--landlocked
Maritime claims: none--landlocked
Disputes: quadripoint with Botswana, Namibia, and Zambia is in disagreement
Climate: tropical; moderated by altitude; rainy season (November to March)
Terrain: mostly high plateau with higher central plateau (high veld); mountains in east
Natural resources: coal, chromium ore, asbestos, gold, nickel, copper, iron ore, vanadium, lithium, tin
Land use: 7% arable land; NEGL% permanent crops; 12% meadows and pastures; 62% forest and woodland; 19% other; includes NEGL% irrigated
Environment: recurring droughts; floods and severe storms are rare; deforestation; soil erosion; air and water pollution; desertification
Note: landlocked
- People Population: 10,392,161 (July 1990), growth rate 3.3% (1990)
Birth rate: 42 births/1,000 population (1990)
Death rate: 9 deaths/1,000 population (1990)
Net migration rate: 0 migrants/1,000 population (1990)
Infant mortality rate: 65 deaths/1,000 live births (1990)
Life expectancy at birth: 59 years male, 63 years female (1990)
Total fertility rate: 5.8 children born/woman (1990)
Nationality: noun--Zimbabwean(s); adjective--Zimbabwean
Ethnic divisions: 98% African (71% Shona, 16% Ndebele, 11% other); 1% white, 1% mixed and Asian
Religion: 50% syncretic (part Christian, part indigenous beliefs), 25% Christian, 24% indigenous beliefs, a few Muslim
Language: English (official); Shona and Ndebele
Literacy: 74%
Labor force: 3,100,000; 74% agriculture, 16% transport and services, 10% mining, manufacturing, construction (1987)
Organized labor: 17% of wage and salary earners have union membership
- Government Long-form name: Republic of Zimbabwe
Type: parliamentary democracy
Capital: Harare
Administrative divisions: 8 provinces; Manicaland, Mashonaland Central, Mashonaland East, Mashonaland West, Matabeleland North, Matabeleland South, Midlands, Victoria (commonly called Masvingo)
Independence: 18 April 1980 (from UK; formerly Southern Rhodesia)
Constitution: 21 December 1979
Legal system: mixture of Roman-Dutch and English common law
National holiday: Independence Day, 18 April (1980)
Executive branch: president, vice president, Cabinet
Legislative branch: unicameral Parliament
Judicial branch: Supreme Court
Leaders: Chief of State and Head of Government--Executive President Robert Gabriel MUGABE (since 31 December 1987); Vice President Simon Vengai MUZENDA (since 31 December 1987)
Political parties and leaders: Zimbabwe African National Union-Patriotic Front (ZANU-PF), Robert Mugabe; Zimbabwe African National Union-Sithole (ZANU-S), Ndabaningi Sithole; Zimbabwe Unity Movement (ZUM), Edgar Tekere
Suffrage: universal at age 18
Elections: President--last held 28-30 March 1990 (next to be held March 1995); results--President Robert Mugabe 78.3%; Edgar Tekere 21.7%;
Parliament--last held 28-30 March 1990 (next to be held March 1993); results--percent of vote by party NA; seats--(150 total, 120 elected) ZANU 116, ZUM 2, ZANU-S 1, to be determined 1
Communists: no Communist party
Member of: ACP, AfDB, CCC, Commonwealth, FAO, G-77, GATT, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, IDA, IFAD, IFC, ILO, IMF, INTERPOL, NAM, OAU, SADCC, UN, UNESCO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WMO
Diplomatic representation: Counselor (Political Affairs), Head of Chancery, Ambassador Stanislaus Garikai CHIGWEDERE; Chancery at 2852 McGill Terrace NW, Washington DC 20008; telephone (202) 332-7100; US--Ambassador-designate Steven RHODES; Embassy at 172 Rhodes Avenue, Harare (mailing address is P. O. Box 3340, Harare); telephone 263o (14) 794-521
Flag: seven equal horizontal bands of green, yellow, red, black, red, yellow, and green with a white equilateral triangle edged in black based on the hoist side; a yellow Zimbabwe bird is superimposed on a red five-pointed star in the center of the triangle
- Economy Overview: Agriculture employs a majority of the labor force and supplies almost 40% of exports. The agro-based manufacturing sector produces a variety of goods and contributes about 25% to GDP. Mining accounts for only 5% of both GDP and employment, but supplies of minerals and metals account for about 40% of exports. Wide year-to-year fluctuations in agricultural production over the past six years resulted in not only an uneven growth rate, but one that did not equal the 3% annual increase in population.
GDP: $4.6 billion, per capita $470; real growth rate 5.3% (1988 est.)
Inflation rate (consumer prices): 7.4% (1988)
Unemployment rate: at least 20% (1988 est.)
Budget: revenues $2.4 billion; expenditures $3.0 billion, including capital expenditures of $290 million (FY90)
Exports: $1.6 billion (f.o.b., 1988); commodities--agricultural 34% (tobacco 21%, other 13%), manufactures 19%, gold 11%, ferrochrome 11%, cotton 6%; partners--Europe 55% (EC 41%, Netherlands 6%, other 8%), Africa 22% (South Africa 12%, other 10%), US 6%
Imports: $1.1 billion (c.i.f., 1988); commodities--machinery and transportation equipment 37%, other manufactures 22%, chemicals 16%, fuels 15%; partners--EC 31%, Africa 29% (South Africa 21%, other 8%), US 8%, Japan 4%
External debt: $2.96 billion (December 1989 est.)